GIFT  OF 


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COMMUNITY  CIVICS 


BY 

R.  O.   HUGHES 

PEABODY    HIGH    SCHOOL,    PITTSBURGH 


ALLYN   AND    BACON 
Boston  Neto  gotft  CIitco0O 


SXxTr 


CQPVRIGHT,   1917  AND   1921,  BY 
R.   O    HUGHES 


NAN 


FOREWORD 

A  nation  is  safe  for  democracy  only  when  it  is  composed 
of  citizens  who  t]iink  seriously  and  intelligently,  and  who 
act  on  their  convictions. 

The  boys  and  girls  of  our  schools  constitute  the  source 
from  which  a  thinking  citizenship  of  this  kind  must  be 
developed. 

Every  one  is  in  some  degree  his  brother's  keeper. 

The  belief  that  these  three  principles  are  true  and  funda- 
mental is  responsible  for  Community  Civics.  It  is  not  a 
compilation  of  facts.  Some  facts  are  vital,  and  most  of  the 
specific  statements  of  the  book  are  worth  remembering,  but 
the  great  emphasis  has  been  placed  on  making  the  pupil 
think  for  himself.  As  an  aid  in  this  direction,  questions 
and  suggestions  for  thought  and  investigation  are  placed  in 
the  body  of  the  text  where  the  pupil  cannot  help  seeing  them, 
as  well  as  at  the  end  of  each  chapter.  There  are  also  special 
topics  requiring  original  investigation,  which  can  profitably 
be  assigned  to  individual  members  of  a  class;  but  neither 
the  questions  nor  the  topics  are  exhaustive,  nor  does  each 
class  need  to  take  up  every  one. 

The  method  of  approach  and  the  order  of  treatment  follow 
in  the  main  the  recommendations  of  recent  Committees  on 
Social  Studies,  without  adhering  slavishly  to  any  one  outline. 
The  student  is  firstrintroduced  to  his  own  community  and 
its  immediate  problSrns.  Then  he  takes  up  the  framework 
of  government,  without  a  knowledge  of  which  the  larger 
problems  cannot  be  properly  comprehended.  Finally  these 
broader  questions,  sometimes  termed  the  "problems  of 
democracy/ '  are  laid  before  him. 

In  studying  government,  the  federal  government  is  taken 
up  first.  In  spite  of  our  theories  as  to  what  ought  to  be 
most  familiar,  the  fact  remains  that  children  and  adults 

459*991 


iv  Foreword 

alike  know  more  about  the  national  government  than  about 
state  or  local  governments.  Analogies  and  contrasts  are 
much  simpler  when  a  common  basis  of  comparison  has  al- 
ready been  laid.  But  any  one  who  wishes  to  follow  a  different 
order  of  treatment  will  find  little  difficulty  in  taking  up  the 
chapters  in  the  order  which  he  likes  best. 

No  attempt  has  been  made  to  display'  erudition  by  using 
technical  language  or  by  filling  space  with  long  bibliographies. 
The  small  school  can  make  no  use  of  elaborate  book  lists, 
and  the  school  with  large  library  facilities  does  not  need  them. 
I  have  tried  to  write  in  language  comprehensible  to  the  aver- 
age pupil  and  to  put  flesh  and  blood  upon  the  dry  bones  of 
constitutions  and  laws.  The  numerous  illustrations  add  to 
the  interest  of  the  text  and  help  to  give  the  pupil  a  more 
concrete  idea  of  the  subject.  The  book,  in  short,  is  the 
outgrowth  of  actual  experience,  and  its  outline  has  been 
covered  in  the  author's  own  classes  several  times. 

A  number  of  the  chapters  were  read  by  Congressman 
M.  Clyde  Kelly,  who  contributed  valuable  suggestions. 
Principal  David  R.  Sumstine  of  the  Peabody  High  School, 
Pittsburgh,  Mr.  Ben  G.  Graham,  Supervisor  of  Junior  High 
Schools,  and  Mr.  W.  A.  Laning,  Mr.  G.  A.  Lundquist,  and 
Miss  Mary  D.  Potter,  fellow-teachers  of  Civics  in  the  Pitts- 
burgh High  Schools,  have  also  read  the  manuscript  or  the 
proof.  Miss  M.  Kathryn  Sheets  of  the  Peabody  High  School 
has  read  the  proof  and  helped  with  comments  from  the  pupil's 
viewpoint.  None  of  these  friends  are  to  blame  for  any  in- 
accuracies or  other  faults  which  may  still  remain,  in  spite 
of  every  effort  to  avoid  them. 

Community  Civics  is  issued  in  the  hope  that  it  may  prove 
an  aid  and  guide  to  our  boys  and  girls  in  the  study  of  what 
is  perhaps  the  most  inspiring  and  significant  subject  in  the 
whole  curriculum. 

R.  O.  Hughes 

Pittsburgh, 
September,  1917. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Grateful  acknowledgment  is  due  to  those  who  have  fur- 
nished materials  for  illustration.  Mr.  J.  D.  Stevenson,  of 
the  Bureau  of  Engineering,  Department  of  Public  Works, 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  furnished  Nos.  4,  14,  15,  16,  17,  18,  19,  20, 
21,  22,  24,  25,  26,  27,  31,  32,  33,  37,  45,  48,  54,  64,  69,  79, 
133,  136,  and  144.  Superintendent  C.  A.  Finley,  of  the 
Bureau  of  Water,  supplied  Nos.  51,  52,  and  53.  Mr. 
J.  W.  Henderson,  of  the  Bureau  of  Smoke  Regulation, 
furnished  Nos.  41,  42,  125,  and  164.  Valuable  personal 
courtesies  were  rendered  by  Mr.  Z.  Z.  Hugus  in  connection 
with  the  pictures  credited  to  the  American  Telephone  and 
Telegraph  Company. 

Besides  these,  thanks  are  due  to  the  friends  mentioned 
below  for  furnishing  the  pictures  whose  numbers  follow  each 
name: 

Mr.  Walter  T.  Bennett,  10,  23. 
Mr.  R.  C.  Braun,  65,  118,  166. 
Mr.  P.  J.  Brinkman,  49,  117. 
Mrs.  Mary  Chambers,  175. 
Mrs.  Mary  E.  Clarkson,  5. 
Mr.  H.  E.  Cole,  203,  209. 
Miss  Irene  Davis,  73,  85. 
Mr.  P.  G.  Dove,  57,  103. 
Mr.  H.  M.  Eastman,  124,  141,  204,  226. 
Miss  Ray  FitzGerald,  60,  160. 
The  H.'  J.  Heinz  Company,  156,  159,  161,  233. 
Mr.  Norman  E.  Henry,  111. 

Miss  Flora  L.  Hubner,  44,  66,  67,  115,  137,  162,  168,  174,  176, 
224,  235. 

Mr.  C.  K.  Hughes,  81,  157,  167,  202,  212,  213,  215. 
Mr.  T.  H.  Hughes,  86,  173. 
Mr.  H  R.  Insley,  130,  143,  216. 

v 


vi  Acknowledgment  of  Illustrations 

Mr.  George  Kirch,  101,  163. 

Mr.  William  L.  Lawson,  151,  152,  229. 

Pennsylvania  State  Forestry  Commission,  165. 

The  Pittsburgh  Railways  Company,  38,  40,  139. 

Mr.  Howard  A.  Power,  107,  108,  109,  128. 

Mr.  Charles  A.  Reed,  30,  47,  76,  201. 

Mr.  Alfred  D.  Reid,  58,  63,  134,  208. 

Miss  Marguerite  Ruch,  12. 

Miss  Hermine  Schumacher,  70. 

Mr.  Joseph  Simboli,  194. 

Mr.  E.  P.  Taft,  217. 

Mr.  Paul  Wakefield,  129,  135,  138. 

Mr.  James  B.  Zimmermann,  35,  36,  46,  75,  83,  234. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 
PART   I.    COMMUNITY  LIFE 

CHAPTER  I.    THE  COMMUNITY  AND  ITS  MEMBERS 

SIOTION  PAOB 

1.  Our  Desire  for  Community  Life 1 

2.  Communities  in  Which  We  Live 2 

3.  Economic  Factors  in  the  Community 3 

4.  Kinds  of  Communities 3' 

5.  Services  of  the  City 5 

6.  Growth  of  Cities 6 

7.  "The  Life  Together" 8 

CHAPTER  II.     NEEDS  AND   FORMS  OF   GOVERNMENT 

8.  Needs  for  Government 11 

9.  Definitions 13 

10.  Forms  of  Government 13 

11.  The  Government  of  the  United  States 15 

12.  Departments  of  Government 16 

13.  Checks  and  Balances 17 

CHAPTER   III.    THE  CITIZEN  — HIS  RIGHTS  AND 
DUTIES 

14.  Explanations 19 

15.  Acquisition  of  Citizenship 20 

16.  Naturalization 21 

17.  Rights  of  Citizens 22 

18.  Duties  of  Citizens 25 

19.  Some  Questions  on  Citizenship 26 


PART  II.     ELEMENTS   OF   COMMUNITY 
WELFARE 

CHAPTER  IV.    THE  PLANNING  OF  THE  COMMUNITY 

20.  Importance  of  Community  Planning 28 

21.  Notable  Examples 30 

vii 


viii  Table  of  Contents 

BBOTION  PAOB 

22.  Topographical  Difficulties     .        .        ...        .        ,        .        .32 

23.  Systems  of  Street  Planning 33 

24.  Civic  Centers 34 

25.  City  Zones 35 

26.  Possibilities  of  Improvement         . 36 

27.  The  Laying  Out  of  Streets 38 

28.  Street  Paving 41 

29.  Street  Cleaning 45 

30.  Street  Lighting 47 

31.  Franchises  and  Their  Evils 48 

32.  Water  Transportation 50 

33.  Bridges 52 

34.  Services  of  the  Railroad        .        . 53 

35.  Improvements  in  the  Railroad 54 

36.  Street  Railways 57 

37.  Quality  of  Street  Car  Service 60 

38.  The  Smoke  Nuisance 61 

39.  Trees  and  Parkways 64 

40.  Unsightly  Places 66 

41.  Unnecessary  Noise 68 


CHAPTER  V.    THE  HEALTH  OF  THE  COMMUNITY 

42.  Death  Rates 72 

43.  Control  of  Disease 73 

44.  Prevention  of  Disease 74 

45.  Food  Inspection 74 

46.  Water  Supply ' 78 

47.  Purification  of  Water 79 

48.  Drainage  and  Sewerage 82 

49.  Disposal  of  Wastes .        .83 

50.  Home  Owning 86 

51.  The  Slums 88 

52.  The  City's  Food  Supply         . .91 

53.  Markets 94 

CHAPTER  VI.    THE  HIGHER   LIFE  OF  THE 
COMMUNITY 

54.  Public  Provision  for  Recreation  and  Culture         ....  97 

55.  Parks 99 

56.  Playgrounds 100 


Table  of  Contents  ix 

BIOTIOlf  PAOB 

57.  Libraries 102 

58.  Religion         ! 104 

59.  Religious  Instruction     .        . 107 

CHAPTER  VII.    THE    PROTECTION   OF  THE 
COMMUNITY 

60.  Fire  Losses 110 

61.  Fire  Fighting Ill 

62.  Fire  Prevention 113 

63.  Fire  Insurance 115 

64.  The  Work  of  the  Police 115 

65.  European  Systems  of  Management 117 

66.  Management  in  the  United  States 117 

67.  Police  Corruption 118 

68.  Emergency  Measures 120 


CHAPTER  VIII.    TRAINING  THE  YOUNG  CITIZEN 

69.  Reasons  for  Public  Schools 122 

70.  Education  in  Other  Countries 123 

71.  Difference  and  Likeness  in  the  States'  School  Systems         .        .  124 

72.  School  Administration 126 

73.  School  Attendance 128 

74.  School  Revenues ,        .  129 

75.  Making  the  Schools  Useful 130 

76.  School  Buildings 132 

77.  New  Features .  '  ■  .        .        .133 


PART  III.     THE  MECHANISM  OF  OUR  GOV- 
ERNMENT 

CHAPTER  IX.    POLITICAL   PARTIES  AND   ELECTION'S 

78.  Reasons  for  Political  Parties' 136 

79.  Party  Organization 137 

80.  Dangers  in  Parties 138 

81.  Nominations 139 

82.  The  Campaign 141 

83.  Elections        .  142 


x  Table  of  Contents 

BKCTIOX  PAGI 

84.  Qualifications  of  Voters       ...        o        ...        .    144 

85.  Woman  Suffrage  «...  ....    145 

86.  Forms  of  Ballots .146 

87.  Initiative,  Referendum,  and  Recall     ......    149 


CHAPTER  X.    HOW  OUR  NATION'S  LAWS  ARE  MADE 

88.  Making  the  Constitution 152 

89.  Congress      . 153 

90.  The  Senators 153 

91.  The  Representatives 154 

92.  Special  Powers  of  the  Houses 156 

93.  Sessions  of  Congress 157 

94.  Government  and  Rules  of  Congress     .        .  .        .        .  159 

95.  Officers  of  Congress 160 

96.  The  Committee  System 162 

97.  The  Process  of  Law-making 163 

98.  Powers  of  Congress 164. 

99.  Special  Provisions  Affecting  Congressmen  ....  167 

CHAPTER  XI.    OUR  CHIEF   EXECUTIVE 

100.  Importance  of  the  President 171 

101.  Term,  Qualifications,  and  Salary 171 

102.  Method  of  Election 173 

103.  Succession  to  the  Presidency 177 

104.  Powers  and  Duties  of  the  President 178 


CHAPTER  XII.    NATIONAL  ADMINISTRATIVE 
DEPARTMENTS 

105.  Development  of  the  Cabinet .        .    184 

106.  Functions  of  the  Cabinet 185 

107.  Comparison  with  the  English  System 186 

108.  State  Department 187 

109.  Treasury  Department  .        .        .        ....        .        .        .188 

110.  War  Department  .        .        . 189 

111.  The  Army .189 

112.  Navy  Department        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .191 

113.  The  Navy 192 

114.  Department  of  Justice 194 

115.  Post  Office  Department 194 


Table  of  Contents  xi 

BECTIOW  PAOB 

116.  Department  of  the  Interior 196 

117.  Department  of  Agriculture  .        .        •        •       .  •        •        •        .  198 

118.  Department  of  Commerce   ........  200 

119.  Department  of  Labor 200 

120.  Interstate  Commerce  Commission 201 

121.  Civil  Service  Commission 202 

122.  Federal  Trade  Commission 203 

123.  Special  Institutions .203 

CHAPTER  XIII.    OUR  NATIONAL  COURTS 

124.  Services  and  Importance 207 

125.  Relation  of  State  and  Federal  Courts 208 

126.  District  Courts 208 

127.  Circuit  Courts  of  Appeals 209 

128.  Supreme  Court 210 

129.  Special  Courts 211 

130.  Term  and  Salary  of  Judicial  Officers 211 

CHAPTER  XIV.     MISCELLANEOUS   FACTS   ABOUT 
NATIONAL   GOVERNMENT 

131.  Removals  from  Office 213 

132.  Treason 214 

133.  Amending  the  Constitution 214 

134.  The  Amendments         .        .        . 215 

135.  The  "  Unwritten  Constitution  " .216 

136.  The  Territories 217 

137.  Colonies  or  Possessions       . 219 

138.  District  of  Columbia 221 

139.  Protectorates        .        .  '      .        .  .        .        .        .        .222 

CHAPTER  XV.    OUR  RELATIONS  WITH   OTHER 
COUNTRIES 

140.  Basis  of  International  Relations 224 

141.  Rights  of  States 225 

142.  Foreign  Representatives 226 

143.  Enforcement  of  Treaties  and  Obligations 227 

144.  War 228 

145.  Effects  of  War  on  Persons  and  Things 229 

146.  Arbitration 230 

147.  The  League  of  Nations ,    .    ,        .231 


xii  Table  of  Contents 


CHAPTER  XVI.    THE  UNION  AND  THE  STATES 

SECTION  PAGR 

148.  Relation  of  the  States  to  Each  Other 233 

149.  Fugitives  from  Justice 235 

150.  National  Supremacy  and  Obligation 236 

151.  Distribution  of  the  Powers  of  Government          ....  237 

152.  Admission  of  States 239 


CHAPTER  XVII.     OUR  STATE   GOVERNMENTS 

153.  The  Original  States      .........  242 

154.  State  Constitutions 242 

155.  The  Form  of  State  Governments 244 

156.  Preliminary  Proceedings  in  a  Criminal  Case      ....  247 

157.  The  Trial 248 

158.  Proceedings  in  a  Civil  Suit 250 

159.  Measures  to  Prevent  Wrong 250 

CHAPTER  XV11I.     LOCAL   GOVERNMENTS 

160.  Subdivisions  of  the  State 253 

161.  Systems  of  Local  Government     .                 254 

162.  County  Administration 255 

163.  County  Officers 255 

164.  The  Town  or  Township 256 

165.  The  New  England  Town 258 

166.  The  Township  in  Other  States 260 

167.  Boroughs  and  Incorporated  Villages 260 

168.  Formation  of  Cities      .        : 261 

169.  City  Officials 262 

170.  City  Problems 265 

171.  Special  Plans  of  City  Government 266 


PART   IV.     PROBLEMS  OF  NATIONAL 
SCOPE 

A.    FINANCIAL  PROBLEMS 

CHAPTER  XIX.     MONEY  AND   CREDIT 

172.  Money  and  Its  Uses 269 

173.  Characteristics  of  Money 270 


stem  if  *^^P^  • 


ents  xiii 


SJOTION 

174.  Our  Currency  System  %g  *^^^  •        •       •       -t  .271 

175.  Our  Paper  Money 272 

176.  Meaning  and  Importance  of  Credit      .  •      .        .        .        .        .    273 

177.  Credit  Instruments 274 

178.  Banks  and  Their  Services    ...        .        .        .        •'.',«        .    276 

179.  The  Clearing-House .278 

180.  Dangers  in  the  Use  of  Credit 279 

181.  The  Federal  Banking  System 280 


CHAPTER  XX.    SOME   IMPORTANT  COMMERCIAL 
TERMS 

182.  Property  and  Its  Ownership 283 

183.  Ways  of  Acquiring  Property 284 

184.  Mortgages 286 

185.  Contracts 287 


CHAPTER  XXI.  HOW  OUR  GOVERNMENTS  GET 
MONEY 

186.  What  Is  a  Good  Tax  ? 289 

187.  Tax  Definitions 290 

188.  The  Cost  of  Government 291 

189.  Government  Revenues 293 

190.  National  Finances ^    .    293 

191.  State  and  Local  Finance 296 

192.  The  Assessment  and  Collection  of  Local  Taxes  .        .        .        .297 

193.  Budget  Making    . 298 

194.  Proposed  Tax  Reforms .        .300 

195.  The  Protective  Tanff .        .302 


B.    ECONOMIC  AND  INDUSTRIAL  PROBLEMS 

CHAPTER  XXII.     LABOR  AND   INDUSTRY 

196.  The  Factors  in  Production 305 

197.  Industrial  Accidents 307 

198.  Prevention  of  Accidents 309 

199.  Workmen's  Compensation  Acts •        .  310 

200.  Dangerous  Trades 311 

201.  Sweatshops .  312 


Conb 


xiv  Table  of  Contents 

BECTION  PAOS 

202.  Child  Labor *  § 314 

203.  Effects 316 

204.  Child  Labor  Laws 318 

205.  Women  Workers 318 

206.  Women's  Labor  Laws 320 

207.  Unemployment 322 

208.  Remedies 322 

209.  Labor  Unions  and  Their  Objects 323 

210.  Union  Methods  ' 324 

211.  Accomplishments  of  the  Unions         ■ 327 

212.  Conciliation  and  Arbitration         .......  328 


CHAPTER  XXIII.     BUSINESS  ORGANIZATION 

213.  Capital  and  Its  Importance 331 

214.  Forms  of  Business  Organization 333 

215.  The  Trust .335 

216.  Relations  of  the  Workers 336 

217.  Monopolies 338 

218.  Monopoly  Prices 339 

219.  Public  Policy  Regarding  Monopolies 340 

220.  The  Anti-Trust  Laws 341 

221.  Our  Merchant  Marine 343 

222.  Industrial  Preparedness       . 344 

CHAPTER  XXIV.    SAVING   OUR   NATURAL   RESOURCES 

223.  Importance  of  Natural  Resources 347 

224.  The  Conservation  Movement 348 

225.  Forest  Conservation 350 

226.  Water  Conservation 352 

227.  Land  Conservation 354 

228.  Other  Conservation  Problems 357 

229.  Homestead  Laws «  358 

230.  Animal  Life ^  358 

C.    SOCIAL  PROBLEMS 

CHAPTER  XXV.    THE  STATE'S  BURDENS 

231.  Crime  and  its  Classification 36* 

232.  Causes  of  Crime 363 


Table  of  Contents  xv 

BBOTION                                           %  PAOB 

233.  Treatment  of  Criminals 364 

234.  Institutions  for  the  Criminal 367 

235.  Convict  Labor 369 

336.   Juvenile  Courts 370 

237.  Poverty  and  Its  Causes 371 

238.  Methods  of  Relief 374 

2!39.  The  Settlement  House 376 

240.  Public  Charitable  Institutions 377 

241.  Care  of  Dependents      ....         .....  379 

242.  The  Feeble-minded       .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .380 

243.  Tramps         . 382 

244.  The  Liquor  Traffic  J    .........  383 

245.  Means  of  Control 383 

246.  General  Results  and  Conclusions  about  the  Liquor  Problem       .  385 


CHAPTER   XXVI.     AMERICA,   THE  "MELTING   POT" 

247.  Where  Did  We  Come  From  ? 390 

248.  Why  Do  They  Come  ? 392 

249.  Where  Do  They  Go  ? 393 

250.  What  Happens? .        .395 

251.  What  Shall  We  Do  about  It  ? 396 

252.  The  Yellow  Man 398 

253.  The  Black  Man 399 

254.  The  Red  Man 402 


CHAPTER  XXVII.    AMERICAN   COUNTRY  LIFE 

255.  Relative  Importance  of  the  Country 405 

256.  Unfavorable  Conditions  in  Rural  Life          .....  405 

257.  The  Farmer  and  the  Highways 409 

258.  Health  as  a  Rural  Problem .411 

259.  The  Protection  of  Life  and  Property 412 

260.  The  Rural  School 415 

261.  The  Higher  Life  of  the  Farm  Community 416 

262.  The  Farmer  as  a  Business  Man 419 

263.  The  Farm  Loan  System 421 

CHAPTER  XXVIII.    TRADE,   TRAVEL,   AND   NEWS 

264.  "  In  Days  of  Old  " 424 

265.  The  Steamboat     .                425 


xvi  Table  of  Contents 

SECTION  PACK 

266.  Constitutional  Questions 426 

267.  The  Railroad 427 

268.  Telling  the  News 429 

269.  The  Meaning  of  These  Factors  in  Our  Life          ....  431 

270.  The  Movements  of  the  People 433 

271.  The  Problems  of  the  Case 434 

CHAPTER  XXIX.    EARNING  A  LIVING 

272.  Preparation  for  Active  Service 437 

273.  Choosing  a  Vocation 439 

274.  Opportunities  for  the  Country  Boy 441 

275.  The  Youth  in  the  City 443 

276.  Training  the  Girl 444 

277.  Occupations  and  Wages       ........  447 

278.  Comparative  Costs 447 

279.  The  Rise  in  Prices 449 

280.  Effects  of  High  Prices 451 

281.  Standards  of  Living 451 

282.  The  Family  Budget 453 

283.  Home  Management 454 

CHAPTER  XXX.     EFFORTS  TOWARD   BETTERMENT 

284.  Sharing  Responsibility 457 

285.  Welfare  Work 458 

286.  Cooperative  Movements 459 

287.  Theories  of  Governmental  Attitude 461 

288.  Extent  of  Government  Regulation 462 

289.  Government  Ownership 463 

290.  Socialism     .        .        .        .       . 464 

291.  The  Method  of  Progress 466 

292.  The  Force  of  Public  Opinion 467 

293.  "Your  United  States" 469 

Appendix  A.    Constitution  of  the  United  States    ....  473 

Appendix  B.    Statistics  of  the  States  and  the  Possessions  .        .  492 

Appendix  C.     Bibliography 494 

Index 497 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PASS 

1    Main  Street  in  a  Western  Frontier  Town 4 

2.  A  New  England  Country  Village 5 

3.  Union  Square,  San  Francisco 6 

4.  Construction  Work  on  a  Great  Bridge 12 

5.  The  Royal  Guard  Assembling  at  Windsor  Castle          ...  14 

6.  Administering  the  Oath  of  Allegiance  to  Aliens  Desiring  Citizen- 

ship      20 

7.  Copy  of  a  Naturalization  Certificate 21 

8.  Warning  Sign 23 

9.  Two  Types  of  Back  Yards 29 

10.  A  City  That  Was  Not  Planned       .        .        .        .        .        .        .31 

11.  What  Some  Communities  Have  to  Contend  With         ...  32 

12.  Sketch  of  McConnelsville,  Ohio 34 

13.  The  Square,  Cleveland,  Ohio 35 

14.  Cutting  the  "  Hump,"  Pittsburgh 37 

15.  A  City  Street  before  Improvement 38 

16.  Same  Street  after  Paving .39 

17.  Street  Repairs  under  Way 40 

18.  Attractive  Residential  Street 41 

19.  Wide  Business  Street .        .42 

20.  A  Cobble  Stone  Street 42 

21.  Laying  Wood  Block  Pavement 43 

22.  Preparing  the  Street  for  Paving 43 

23.  Details  of  Asphalt  Paving 44 

24.  Concrete  Alley  Pavement 44 

25.  Asphalt  Pavement 45 

26.  Cluster  Lights  at  Night 46 

27.  Brick  Pavement j      .        .        .47 

28.  Broad  Street,  Philadelphia,  in  the  '80's 49 

29.  Laying  Ducts  for  Underground  Telephone  Cables         ...  50 

30.  Locks  in  Canal  Around  Rapids  in  the  St.  Lawrence  River  .        .  51 

31.  The  Point  Bridges,  Pittsburgh 52 

32.  Dangerous  Grade  Crossing 53 

33.  Switch  Yards          .  - 54 

34.  Broad  Street  Station,  Philadelphia 55 

xvii 


xviii  List  of  Illustrations 

PAG* 

35.  A  Suburban  Station  Platform  and  Tracks 56 

36.  A  Grade  Crossing  Abolished          . 56 

37.  Block  Stone  Pavement 57 

38.  Old  Style  Horse  and  Cable  Cars 58 

39.  Traffic  on  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York 59 

40.  A  Modern  Low-Floor  Car 61 

41.  Before  Smoke  Regulation  Was  in  Vogue 62 

42.  Pittsburgh  after  a  Season  of  Smoke  Regulation    ....  63 

43.  New  England  Elms  and  Maples .64 

44.  A  Scene  in  Los  Angeles 65 

45.  Lemon  Alley 66 

46.  A  Common  Sight 67 

47.  Back  of  the  Same  Bill  Boards 68 

48.  Sewers  under  Construction 75 

49.  A  Stockyard  Scene .76 

50.  Well-kept  Grocery 77 

51.  Reservoir  Constituting  a  Part  of  Great  City  Water  System  .         78,  79 

52.  Settling  Basins  at  a  Filtration  Plant 80 

53.  Water  Mains 81 

54.  Sewer  and  Drainage  System  before  the  Street  is  Graded      .        .  82 

55.  Weighing  Garbage  after  Collection 84 

56.  Too  Valuable  to  Waste 85 

57.  A  Real  Estate  Company's  Slogan 86 

58.  Apartment  Houses  along  Riverside  Drive,  New  York  ...  87 

59.  A  Scene  in  the  Slums    .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .89 

60.  Products  of  the  South 91 

61.  A  North  Dakota  Wheat  Field         .......  92 

62.  A  California  Fruit  Ranch .        .92 

63.  Grain  Elevators,  Montreal .  93 

64.  Old  Market  House 94 

65.  Carnegie  Museum,  Music  Hall,  and  Library,  Pittsburgh      .        .  97 

66.  Open  Air  Organ,  San  Diego,  California 98 

67.  Scene  in  Garfield  Park,  Chicago  .......  99 

68.  View  in  the  Public  Gardens,  Boston 100 

69.  A  Playground  is  Needed  in  This  Neighborhood    .         .        .         .  101 

70.  Library,  Middlebury,  Vermont 102 

71.  Pageant  Scene,  Medford,  Massachusetts 103 

72.  Mormon  Temple  and  Tabernacle,  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah       .        .  105 

73.  Church,  Concord,  Massachusetts 106 

74.  Cathedral 107 

75  Fire  Engine Ill 

76-  Engine  House        .,•••»,..•  112 


List  of  Illustrations  xix 

PAO» 

77.  A  Dangerous  Fire  Hazard 113 

78.  Fire  Alarm  Box 114 

79.  Cornerman  on  Duty     .        . 116 

80.  Sidewalk  Marketing .        .        .119 

81.  A  New  England  Academy 124 

82.  High  School  and  Stadium,  Tacoma,  Washington        .        .        .  125 

83.  A  Country  Schoolhouse 126 

84.  Union  School  in  Rural  Kentucky 127 

85.  Southwestern  State  Normal  School,  California,  Pennsylvania   .  128 

86.  A  California  Grammar  School,  Calexico,  California   .        .        .  129 

87.  At  Work  in  the  School  Gardens 131 

88.  Corridor  of  the  High  School,  El  Paso,  Texas      .        .        .        .132 

89.  Open  Air  School,  Jamaica  Plain,  Massachusetts         .        .        .  133 

90.  A  Primary  Ballot .        .140 

91.  President  Wilson  Casting  His  Vote 143 

92.  Susan  B.  Anthony '.145 

93.  Party  Column  Ballot 146 

94.  A  Pennsylvania  Ballot         .        . 147 

95.  A  Massachusetts  Ballot 148 

96.  Independence  Hall .        .        .  152 

97.  A  Fairly  Divided  State         . 154 

98.  A  Gerrymandered  State 155 

99.  The  Capitol  at  Washington 158 

100.  Senate  Office  Building,  Washington 161 

101.  Government  Building,  Newport  News,  Virginia  .        .        .  164 

102.  A  Twelve-inch  Mortar  Ready  for  Action 165 

103.  The  White  House 173 

104.  Democratic  Presidential  Nominating  Convention        .        .        .  175 

105.  Cadets  of  Naval  Academy,  Annapolis,  Maryland        .        .        .  179 

106.  President  Wilson  Addressing  Congress 181 

107.  Office  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 185 

108.  Entrance  to  the  State,  War,  and  Navy  Building         .        .        .187 

109.  Front  of  the  Treasury  Building 188 

110.  Certificate  of  Registration  under  Selective  Draft  Act  of  1917    .  190 

111.  Squad  at  the  Plattsburg  Training  Camp 191 

112.  War  Vessels  in  San  Diego  Harbor,  California     ....  193 

113.  Mail  Trucks  Loading  up  with  Sacks  to  be  Taken  to  the  Rail- 

road Station 194 

114.  The  Postman 195 

115.  Jupiter  Terrace,  Yellowstone  Park 197 

116.  Shoshone  Dam,  Wyoming 198 

117.  Waiting  for  Inspection 199 


xx  List  of  Illustrations 

MM 

118.  Front  of  the  Congressional  Library,  Washington         .        •        .  204 

119.  Harbor,  San  Juan,  Porto  Rico 217 

120.  Douglas,  Alaska  .        . 218 

121.  House  Boats  at  Manila         .     '  .        '. 220 

122.  Flags  of  Three  Allies .  228 

123.  U.  S.  S.  Nevada 229 

124.  Small  Canadian  Custom  House,  Cardinal,  Ontario      .        .        .  230 

125.  Boats  on  the  Ohio  River 234 

126.  Minnesota  State  Capital,  St.  Paul,  Minnesota      .        .        .        .  244 

127.  First  Pr'nted  Copy  of  a  Bill 245 

128.  Sonoma  County  Court  House,  Santa  Rosa,.  California        .        .  248 

129.  Plan  of  a  Court  Room 249 

130.  Orange  County  Court  House,  Santa  Ana,  California  .        .        .  256 

131.  Old  Town  Hall  and  Church,  Rockingham,  Vermont  .        .        .257 

132.  Interior,  Old  Town  Hall  and  Church,  Rockingham,  Vermont     .  259 

133.  Macadamized  Road 261 

134.  Municipal  Building,  Springfield,  Massachusetts  .        .        .  262 

135.  Common  Type  of  City  Government 263 

136.  Old  Style  Cobble  Stone  Street 264 

137.  A  Street  Corner  in  Pasadena,  California 265 

138.  The  City  Manager  Plan 266 

139.  Some  of  the  Big  Business  Houses  of  a  Great  City       .        .        .  274 

140.  Entrance  to  a  Large  Bank 277 

141.  Bank  and  Office  Buildings 278 

142.  Broad  Street,  Philadelphia,  To-Day 279 

143.  County  Recorder's  Office,  Santa  Ana,  California        .        .        .  286 

144.  An  Arch  Bridge  under  Construction 292 

145.  U.  S.  S.  Missouri  in  the  Panama  Canal 295 

146.  Main  Street,  Moose  Jaw,  Saskatchewan 297 

147.  Ohio  River  Barges .306 

148.  Living  Conditions  among  Cannery  Workers  in  Maryland    .        .  307 

149.  Steel  Mills,  Pittsburgh 308 

150.  Safety  First  Bulletin 309 

151.  Fan  for  Purifying  the  Air  in  a  Mine 310 

152.  Charging  Board  for  Miners'  Lamps 311 

153.  Home  Work  in  the  Garment  Industry 313 

154.  Shucking  Oysters 315 

155.  What  Child  Labor  Does 317 

156.  Women  at  Work  under  Favorable  Conditions     ....  319 

157.  Shoe  Factory,  Spencer,  Massachusetts 321 

158.  Poster  Put  Up  by  Striking  Tailors 325 

159.  The  Largest  Factory  of  Its  Kind  in  the  World     .        .        .        .332 


List  of  Illustrations  xxi 

PAQB 

160.  Office  Building,  Birmingham,  Alabama 333 

161.  Specialization  in  Industry 337 

162.  Monopoly  of  Situation 339 

163.  A  Five  Master 343 

164.  Two  Views  of  the  Same  Plant 344 

165.  Trees  Planted  by  the  Pennsylvania  Forestry  Department  .        .  348 

166.  Gifford  Pinchot 349 

167.  Wasteful  Lumbering             .        .        . 350 

168.  One  of  California's  Big  Trees 351 

169.  A  Flood  in  the  Allegheny .  352 

170.  Niagara  Falls 353 

171.  The  California  Desert 354 

172.  Irrigation  Canal,  Imperial  Valley,  California       .        .        .        .  355 

173.  Street  Corner  in  Calexico,  California 356 

174.  A  View  in  the  Yosemite  Valley,  California 357 

175.  Oil  Derrick,  Coleman,  Texas 358 

176.  In  the  Garden  of  the  Gods,  Colorado 359 

177.  An  Unprofitable  Pastime 364 

178.  Old-time  Prison  Equipment 365 

179.  Cell  Corridor  in  a  County  Workhouse 366 

180.  State  Prison,  Windsor,  Vermont 367 

181.  Massachusetts  State  Reformatory  for  Women     ....  368 

182.  Output  of  a  Workhouse  Factory 369 

183.  Why  Some  People  Are  Poor 373 

184.  Salvation  Army  Dinner  for  the  Children     .        .        .      '  .        .374 

185.  Reading  Room  in  Dawes  Hotel 375 

186.  Learning  a  Trade 378 

187.  Work  of  Insane  Patients 379 

188.  Choir  in  the  Perkins  Institute  for  the  Blind,  Watertown,  Massa- 

chusetts      380 

189.  Municipal  Lodging  House,  New  York 382 

190.  A  Local  Option  Ballot 384 

191.  An  Immigrant  Family  in  the  Beet  Fields  of  Colorado          .        .  391 

192.  A  Kind  of  Work  for  Which  Immigrant  Labor  is  Commonly 

Used 393 

193.  Proportion  of  Foreign  Elements  in  the  States     ....  394 

194.  A  Street  on  the  East  Side,  New  York 395 

195.  Street  Scene  in  the  North  End  of  Boston    ......  3% 

196.  Immigrant's  Inspection  Card       .        .        .        .                 ..        .  397 

197.  Scene  in  New  York's  Chinatown         .......  398 

198.  Buildings  and  Grounds,  Tuskegee  Institute,  Alabama         .        .  400 

199.  Woodworking  Department,  Tuskegee  Institute,  Alabama  .        .  401 


xxii  List  of  Illustrations 


PAQB 

200.  Ojibway  Indian  Boys,  Tower,  Minnesota 403 

201.  On  a  New  England  Abandoned  Farm 406 

202.  A  New  England  Farm  in  Winter 407 

203.  Old  Schoolhouse  and  Burying  Ground,  New  London,  Conn.       .    407 

204.  One  Kind  of  Rural  Road 408 

205.  The  Farmer's  New  Carryall 409 

206.  A  Well-kept  Country  Road 410 

207.  A  New  Hampshire  Country  Railroad 411 

208.  Farm  Scene  on  the  Great  Plains,  Eastern  Colorado    .        .        .412 

209.  Country  Stores,  Tower  City,  North  Dakota         .        .        .        .413 

210.  Stripping  Tobacco  on  a  Kentucky  Farm 414 

211.  New  School  Building  in  a  Country  Village  ....    416 

212.  Winter  Travel  in  the  Country 417 

213.  Looking  up  the  Connecticut  Valley 418 

214.  Up-to-date  Farm  Buildings 419 

215.  Country  Estate  of  Madame  Modjeska .    420 

216.  Old  Stage  Coach 425 

217.  How  They  Went  West  Before  There  Was  a  Railroad  .        .     426,  427 

218.  Old  Style  Toll  Bridge  and  Railroad  Bridge,   Bellows  Falls, 

Vermont 428 

219.  The  Twentieth  Century  Limited 429 

220.  The  First  Telephone 430 

221.  Hauling  Telephone  Poles  in  the  Desert 432 

222.  Guide  Sign  on  the  Lincoln  Highway 433 

223.  "Old  Faithful,"  Yellowstone  Park 434 

224.  A  Blind  Alley  Occupation .440 

225.  Old  Grist  Mill,  New  London,  Connecticut  .....    442 

226.  Interior  of  a  Large  Central  Telephone  Office       ....    446 

227.  A  Hotel  of  the  Old  Days 448 

228.  Hotel,  Old  Point  Comfort,  Virginia 449 

229.  Now  and  Forty  Years  Ago  .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .450 

230.  Old-fashioned  Covered  Bridge 452 

231.  Poplars  in  the  Fens,  Boston,  Massachusetts       ....    453 

232.  Roof  Garden  for  Employed  Girls         .        .        .        .        .        .459 

233.  Bargains? 460 

234.  Geyser  Basin,  Yellowstone  Park 462 

235.  Newspaper  Headings  •        .        •        •        «        •        •             468 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

PART  I 

COMMUNITY  LIFE 

CHAPTER   I 

THE  COMMUNITY  AND  ITS  MEMBEKS 


The  vocation  of  every  man  and  woman  is  to  serve  other  people. 

—Tolstoi. 

1.  Our  Desire  for  Community  Life.  —  How  would  you 
like  to  be  a  hermit,  and  live  for  months  or  years  without 
having  anything  to  do  with  other  people  or  even  seeing  them 
except  on  very  rare  occasions  ?  Judging  by  the  number  of 
people  who  live  that  way,  it  is  not  an  especially  popular 
manner  of  life. 

It  is  great  sport,  as  many  of  you  know,  particularly  if 
you  have  belonged  to  the  Boy  Scouts  or  the  Camp  Fire  Girls, 
to  go  out  for  a  while  and  live  as  the  red  men  did  or  the  first 
white  men  who  came  into  a  new  country.  You  can  even 
enjoy  several  weeks  of  camp  life  by  the  sea'  or  lake-shore 
or  in  the  deep  woods.  But  few  of  us  want  to  do  this  all  by 
ourselves,  and  we  are  glad  enough  after  a  little  time  to  come 
back  where  there  are  substantial  roads  and  electric  lights 
and  newspapers  and  stores  and  all  the  other  things  that 
exist  just  because  people  live  together  and  have  much  to  do 
with  each  other. 

The  boy  or  girl  who  does  not  like,  some  of  the  time  at 
least,  to  be  with  others  who  have  common  interests  is  rather 

1 


$''         The  Community  and  Its  Members 

ubusuak;;Xt  is, -just  as  true  of  men  and  women.  Their 
lodges)  clubs; !  church  societies,  and  the  like,  are  a  similar 
expression  of  community  interest.  We  all  want  the  pleasure 
and  benefits  that  come  from  association  with  others. 

How  many  things  can  you  do  without  receiving  help,  directly  or 
indirectly,  from  some  one  else? 

2.  Communities  in  Which  We  Live.  —  Before  the  child 
is  able  to  do  anything  for  himself,  he  lives  as  a  member  of  a 
group  that  we  call  the  family.  Here,  among  parents, 
brothers,  and  sisters,  and  perhaps  a  few  others,  he  learns 
first  what  it  means  to  live  with  others  and  how  much  he 
owes  to  them. 

Mention  some  conditions  that  cause  the  home  life  of  families  to 
differ.  Can  you  describe  an  ideal  home  ?  Why  are  not  all  homes 
of  this  kind  ?  How  can  home  conditions  affect  a  person's  activities 
and  development  outside  the  home  ? 

Probably  the  first  organized  group  that  many  of  you 
became  acquainted  with  outside  your  home  was  a  Sunday- 
school  class  or  some  other  society  connected  with  a  church. 
If  that  is  not  so,  you  have  missed  something  which  you 
ought  to  enjoy  —  something  which  you  ought  never  to 
outgrow. 

Sometime  about  the  age  of  six  you  became  a  part  of  the 
community  in  which  you  have  ever  since  spent  a  good  share 
of  your  waking  hours  —  the  school.  Here  you  learned  little 
by  little  how  to  get  along  in  the  world  around  you,  what 
it  has  to  give  you,  and  what  you  can  give  it.  You  have 
begun  to  understand  the  way  in  which  people  outside  your 
home  contribute  something  to  the  comfort  and  betterment 
of  those  within  it.  Perhaps  you  have  already  taken  a  little 
part  yourself  in  working  for  others  and  so  helping  along  the 
community  in  which  you  live.  In  any  case  you  have  reached 
the  time  now  when  you  can  study  somewhat  definitely  the 
means  by  which  your  local  community  and  the  wider  com- 


Kinds  of  Communities  3 

munity  which  we  call  the  nation  undertake  to  do  the  things 
that  their  people  feel  should  be  done. 

From  your  own  recollection  can  you  judge  how  early  in  life  a 
child  is  likely  to  begin  to  realize  his  true  relations  with  others? 
Have  you  ever  thought  much  about  it  yourself?  Have  you  ever 
done  anything  —  whether  paid  for  it  or  not  —  which  was  of  real 
value  to  the  community  in  which  you  live  ? 

3.  Economic  Factors  in  the  Community.  —  Homes  and 
churches  and  schools  are  engaged  in  a  work  whose  value  is 
not  likely  to  be  estimated  too  highly,  but  they  alone  cannot 
provide  all  that  the  community  of  to-day  needs  or  thinks  it 
needs.  Nature  has  so  constructed  us  that  we  need  two  or 
three  meals  a  day,  and  it  is  neither  fashionable  nor  comfort- 
able to  try  to  get  along  without  clothes.  There  are  count- 
less other  things  which  we  are  all  the  time  asking  for.  Many 
of  them  we  do  not  really  need,  but  they  add  much  to  our 
comfort  and  convenience,  such  as  telephones  and  automobiles 
and  porch  swings.  Thousands  of  other  articles  which  are 
produced  add  only  to  our  pleasure. 

The  more  people  there  are  in  a  community  the  more  ex- 
tensive is  the  demand  for  all  these  things,  and  the  wider  is 
the  range  of  occupations  which  a  community  can  offer  its 
members.  Whether  the  community  is  large  or  small,  the 
economic  side  of  its  -life,  that  is,  the  phase  of  its  activi- 
ties which  is  concerned  with  earning  a  living,  has  a  very  wide 
effect  upon  almost  everything  that  is  done  by  it  or  for  it. 

Try  to  imagine  yourself  living  in  your  community  about  the 
time  it  was  first  settled.  See  if  you  can  trace  the  steps  by  which 
first  one  occupation  and  then  another  was  introduced,  and  why. 
How  many  of  the  occupations  represented  in  your  community  are 
really  not  necessary  to  its  well-being  and  progress?  Are  any  of 
them  actually  harmful  ?  Does  a  community  have  wants  as  a  group 
which  its  members  would  not  have  as  individuals  ? 

4.  Kinds  of  Communities.  —  It  is  common  to  divide  com- 
munities into  two  groups,  rural  and  urban.  By  rural 
communities  we  mean  those  in  which  the  people  do  not  live 


4  The  Community  and  Its  Members 

in  dwellings  set  close  together,  those  in  which  farming  is 
the  principal  occupation.  Nevertheless  there  is  a  real  com- 
munity interest  often  manifested  by  the  people  who  live  in 
such  localities,  as  one  would  discover  if  he  spent  any  length 
of  time  among  the  farmers  of  the  western  prairies,  where  it 
is  often  a  long,  long  way  from  one  farmhouse  to  the  next. 

Even  in  such  regions  places  of  general  interest  or  use,  such 
as  a  store,  a  church,  or  a  blacksmith  shop,  may  be  built  near 
each  other,  and  a  little  village  may  grow  up  around  them. 


Main  Street  in  a  Western  Frontier  Town. 


Perhaps  in  time  quite  a  sizable  community  may  develop, 
and  serve  as  a  center  of  trade  for  a  large  area  of  farming 
country.  Sometimes  towns  spring  up  suddenly,  as  they 
did  in  the  regions  in  Pennsylvania  where  men  first  "  struck 
oil "  or  in  some  of  the  mining  districts  of  the  far  West. 
Occasionally  they  stop  growing  just  as  suddenly  as  they 
started,  and  have  only  the  vanished  glories  of  past  days  to 
console  them  for  their  faded  hopes  of  greatness.  Rarely  a 
great  business  organization  like  the  United  States  Steel 
Corporation  starts  a  town  of  its  own,  as  it  founded  Gary, 
Indiana. 

Urban    communities    are    those   where   the   people   live 


Services  of  the  City  5 

relatively  close  together,  and  in  which  there  is  usually  some 
variety  of  occupations.  The  national  Census  Bureau 
counts  a  place  as  in  this  class  if  it  has  a  population  of  2500 
or  more.  If  a  community  gets  to  be  thickly  settled  and 
obtains  a  special  form  of  government  under  a  "  charter  " 


A  New  England  Country  Village. 


from  the  state  in  which  it  is  located,  it  is  entitled  to  call 
itself  a  city.  The  size  which  a  community  must  attain  in 
order  to  do  this  varies  greatly  from  one  state  to  another. 

How  would  the  community  in  which  you  live  be  classified?  Is 
there  anything  unusual  about  its  foundation  or  development? 
Why  was  it  established  at  that  particular  point?  Study  the  three 
pictures  of  communities.  What  particular  features  of  each  do  you 
notice  ?    Would  you  care  to  live  in  any  of  them  ? 

5.  Services  of  the  City.  —  The  services  performed  by  the 
city  government  are  almost  innumerable.  The  construc- 
tion and  care  of  streets,  prevention  and  punishment  of 
crime,  protection  of  life  and  property,  promotion  of  educa- 


6  The  Community  and  Its  Members 

tion  and  culture,  care  of  the  public  health  and  of  the  poor 
and  unfortunate  —  these  and  many  other  necessary  services 
are  performed,  wholly  or  in  part,  by  the  city.  Most  cities 
also  furnish  their  people's  water  supply.  Many  supply  their 
own  light  for  streets  and  other  public  places.  Some  own  or 
at  least  have  something  to  say  about  the  management  of 
street  railways,  docks,  and  other  public  utilities. 


Copyright,  Underwood  &  Underwood 

Union  Square,  San  Francisco. 


Most  cities  provide  various  little  courtesies  and  con- 
veniences which  add  much  to  the  pleasure  and  profit  of 
city  life,  but  which  could  not  by  any  stretch  of  the  imagi- 
nation be  considered  necessary.  Public  baths,  free  band 
concerts,  organ  recitals,  museums,  and  the  like,  illustrate 
activities  of  city  governments  which  ought  to  mean  even 
more  than  they  do  to  the  average  city  resident. 

6.  Growth  of  Cities.  —  The  growth  of  cities  is  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  features  in  the  development  of  American 


Growth  of  Cities  7 

life.  In  1790  only  3.4  per  cent  of  the  people  of  the  United 
States  were  urban  —  that  is,  lived  in  cities.  To-day  fully 
50  per  cent  live  in  communities  large  enough  to  have  been 
called  cities  100  years  ago.  One  hundred  years  ago  no  place 
in  the  country  had  100,000  people.  In  1920  sixty-eight  cities 
had  more  than  that  number. 

Cities  themselves  are  not  new,  of  course.  Babylon, 
Alexandria,  Athens,  and  Rome  were  cities  of  ancient  times 
which  mightily  influenced  the  course  of  history.  Neither 
is  their  growth  limited  to  the  United  States.  London, 
Berlin,  Tokio,  Buenos  Aires,  are  cities  that  have  grown 
almost  as  rapidly  as  the  great  cities  of  the  United  States. 
But  it  is  remarkable  for  a  country  that  was  once  agricultural 
to  the  extent  that  we  were,  to  produce  so  many  great  cities 
in  so  short  a  time.  New  York  with  its  suburbs  is  now  the 
greatest  center  of  population  in  the  world,  and  the  five  larg- 
est cities  of  the  United  States  contain  more  than  one-tenth 
of  the  population  of  the  country. 

Numerous  causes,  working  together,  have  contributed 
to  this  marvelous  city  growth.  The  development  of  the 
factory  system  of  industry  has  drawn  thousands  of  people 
together  in  a  small  space.  The  increased  use  of  machinery 
has  made  it  possible  for  many  more  people  to  find  work  in 
the  city  and  less  to  be  needed  on  the  farm.  Railroads  have 
helped  to  build  up  great  centers  of  trade  and  commerce. 
The  idea  that  city  life  is  pleasanter  and  offers  more  oppor- 
tunities for  advancement  than  the  country  or  the  small 
town  has  enticed  many  into  the  whirl  of  the  city  life,  only 
to  find  that  after  all  they  are  simply  lost  in  the  crowd. 

Is  your  city  growing?  Why  or  why  not?  In  what  kind  of 
community  would  you  like  best  to  live? 

The  following  table  shows  the  growth  of  the  25  cities 
which  in  1920  were  the  most  populous  in  the  United  States. 
Study  it,  and  see  if  you  can  explain,  from  your  knowledge 
of  geography  or  any  other  source  of  information,  why  some 
have  grown  so  much  more  rapidly  than  others. 


8 


The  Community  and  Its  Members 


CITY 

1920 

1910 

1890 

1870 

1850 

1830 

( New  York 

5,620,048 

4,766,883 

2,507,414 

1,478,103 

696,115 

242,278 

Chicago 

2,701,705 

2,185,283 

1,099,850 

298,977 

29,963 

Philadelphia 

1,823,779 

1,549,008 

1,046,964 

674,022 

408,462 

188,797 

Detroit 

993,678 

465,766 

205,876 

79,577 

21,019 

2,222 

Cleveland 

796,841 

560,663 

261,353 

92,829 

17,034 

1,076 

St.  Louis 

772,897 

687,029 

451,770 

310,864 

77,860 

4,977 

Boston 

748,060 

670,585 

448,477 

250,526 

136,881 

61,392 

Baltimore 

733,826 

558,485 

434,439 

267,354 

169,054 

80,620 

Pittsburgh 

588,343 

533,905 

343,904 

139,256 

67,863 

15,369 

Los  Angeles 

576,673 

319,198 

50,395 

5,728 

1,610 

Buffalo 

506,775 

423,715 

255,664 

117,714 

42,261 

8,668 

San  Fran- 

cisco 

506,676 

416,912 

298,997 

149,473 

34,776 

Milwaukee 

457,147 

373,857 

204,468 

71,440 

20,061 

Washington 

437,571 

331,069 

230,392 

109,199 

40,001 

18,826 

Newark 

414,524 

347,469 

181,830 

105,059 

38,894 

10,953 

Cincinnati 

401,247 

363,591 

296,908 

216,239 

115,435 

24,831 

New  Orleans 

387,219 

339,075 

242,039 

191,418 

116,375 

46,082 

Minneapolis 

380,582 

301,408 

164,738 

13,066 



Kansas  City 

324,410 

248,381 

132,716 

32,260 

600 

Seattle 

315,312 

237,194 

42,837 

1,107 

Indianapolis 

314,194 

233,650 

105,436 

48,244 

8,091 

1,085 

Jersey  City 

298,103 

267,779 

163,003 

82,546 

6,856 



Rochester 

295,750 

218,149 

133,896 

62,386 

36,403 

9,207 

Portland 

258,288 

207,214 

46,385 

8,293 

821 

Denver 

256,491 

213,381 

106,713 

4,758 





From  the  growth  of  these  cities  between  one  date  and  the  next, 
can  you  infer  anything  with  reference  to  the  movement  of  the 
people  from  one  section  of  the  country  to  another,  or  to  changes  in 
industry  within  the  country  ? 


7.  "The  Life  Together."  —  President  Faunce  of  Brown 
University,  in  addressing  his  own  students,  once  coined  the 
happy  phrase,  "  the  life  together,"  to  describe  the  college 
community  to  which  they  belonged.  The  thought  may  be 
applied  to  any  community,  large  or  small,  of  which  we  are  a 
part.  Is  it  the  home  that  we  think  of?  Surely  every  mem- 
ber of  it  should  have  many  interests  in  common  with  every 
other,  and  the  welfare  of  one  should  be  the  welfare  of  all. 


"The  Life  Together"  9 

Is  it  the  school  that  we  have  in  mind?  Don't  forget  that 
school  is  a  part  of  life,  not  merely  a  preparation  for  it.  We 
are  all  working  for  the  same  purpose.  If  one  pupil  does  ex- 
ceptionally well,  the  whole  school  shares  in  the  credit.  If 
one  fails  through  carelessness  and  neglect,  the  whole  school 
suffers.     Each  has  his  own  part,  which  no  one  else  can  do. 

So  it  is  with  the  community.  Our  community  life  is  a 
"  life  together."  What  concerns  one  member  of  it,  concerns 
directly  or  indirectly  all  the  rest.  This  thought,  which 
many  do  not  appreciate  as  they  should,  we  intend  to  keep 
constantly  in  mind  as  we  pursue  the  very  important  subject 
which  we  have  begun  to  study. 


QUESTIONS 

Is  there  anything  attractive  about  the  life  of  a  hermit?  What 
motives  might  lead  a  person  to  live  in  that  way  ? 

What  is  the  meaning  of  "community  life"?  Show  that  this  is 
natural  for  people  of  all  ages. 

What  is  a  family?  Would  it  be  possible  or  wise  to  do  away 
with  family  life? 

What  was  the  first  group  or  organization  that  you  became  ac- 
quainted with  outside  of  your  own  family  ? 

What  has  your  school  done  to  help  you  understand  your  rela- 
tions with  others? 

Define  "economic  activities."  Show  their  importance  in  a 
community.  Trace  the  economic  development  of  your  own  com- 
munity.    Has  it  all  been  good? 

Define  the  two  kinds  of  communities.  Mention  the  ways  by 
which  villages  and  towns  get  their  start. 

What  is  a  city  ?  What  are  some  of  the  things  that  cities  do  for 
their  people  ? 

Compare  the  importance  of  cities  in  the  United  States  to-day 
and  a  century  ago.  How  does  this  condition  compare  with  other 
countries  and  other  times?  What  are  the  chief  causes  of  this  tre- 
mendous city  growth? 

Show  that  each  member  of  a  community  has  a  personal  re- 
sponsibility for  its  welfare.  Prove  this  fact  with  reference  to  your 
home,  your  school,  and  your  town  or  city. 


10         The  Community  and  Its  Members 


SPECIAL  TOPICS 

The  Work  of  the  Boy  Scouts. 

The  Camp  Fire  Girls. 

The  Founding  of  Our  Community. 

The  Industries  of  Our  Community. 

The  Progress  of  Our  Community. 

A  study  of  the  most  important  characteristics  of  the  development 
of  the  large  cities  given  in  the  table  on  page  8,  or  of  communities 
of  special  interest  of  some  kind,  suck  as  Brockton,  Bridgeport, 
Atlantic  City,  Birmingham,  Tampa,  Denver,  Salt  Lake  City,  Fair- 
banks, and  the  like,  would  be  profitable. 


CHAPTER  II 

NEEDS  AND  POEMS  OP  GOVEKNMENT 


That  is  the  best  government  which  desires  to  make  the  people  happy 
and  knows  how  to  make  them  happy.—  Maeaulay. 


8.  Needs  for  Government.  —  Few  people  would  care  to 
stay  very  long  in  a  community  where  everybody  did  just 
what  he  pleased  just  when  he  pleased.  No  family  would 
be  happy  whose  members  conducted  themselves  in  that 
way.  No  baseball  team  could  be  successfully  managed  on 
any  such  principle.  No  more  could  any  group  of  men  and 
women  live  in  a  community  without  some  person  or  persons 
to  guide  or  control  their  actions  —  in  other  words,  to  govern 
them. 

True,  if  everybody  practiced  the  Golden  Rule,  we  might 
get  along  passably  well  without  very  much  government. 
But  not  every  one  does.  Even  at  that,  good  men  often 
honestly  disagree  about  matters  of  public  interest,  and 
some  way  must  be  provided  to  decide  whose  views  shall  be 
adopted.  Besides,  individuals  by  themselves  find  it  wholly 
impossible  to  do  many  desirable  things  which  they  can 
readily  accomplish  by  acting  together. 

We  must  have  governments,  then,  to  perform  at  least  the 
following  functions : 

(1)  To  define  and  make  known  the  rights  and  duties  of 
individuals ; 

(2)  To  keep  order  and  protect  fife  and  property ; 

(3)  To  enforce  the  performance  of  duties  and  punish,  if 
necessary,  those  who  disregard  them ; 

11 


12 


Needs  and  Forms  of  Government 


(4)  To  regulate  and  conduct  numerous  activities  which 
either  cannot  be  performed  by  private  activity  or  can  be 
better  performed  by  governmental  action. 

Under  this  last  head  are  included  such  matters  as  the  regu- 
lation of  trade  and  industry,  the  construction  of  public 
buildings  and  of  streets,  the  management  of  public  schools, 


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Construction  Work  on  a  Great  Bridge. 

and  many  activities  embraced  in  the  so-called  police  power 
of  government.  By  this  term  we  mean  the  power  to  make  all 
laws  necessary  to  protect  the  peace,  safety,  health,  and 
morals  of  the  people.  Men  will  often  disagree  as  to  just 
how  far  this  function  shall  be  exercised,  but  every  year  sees 
a  wider  extension  of  governmental  service  of  this  kind. 

Give  at  least  one  illustration  of  the  way  each  of  the  functions  of 
government  affects  you  personally. 

Learn  the  preamble  of  the  national  Constitution  as  a  statement 
of  the  reasons  why  our  government  was  formed.  Find  a  similar 
statement  of  purpose  in  your  state  constitution. 

Who  are  "  the  people  "  ? 


Forms  of  Government  13 

9.  Definitions.  —  The  rules  which  arc  made  either  by  the 
people  or  for  them,  to  direct  their  actions,  are  called  laws. 
The  combined  agency  of  laws,  customs,  and  officers  that 
carries  on  public  business  we  call  government.  The  supreme 
and  unlimited  power  to  form  and  administer  government  is 
known  as  sovereignty.  In  countries  like  the  United  States, 
Great  Britain,  and  France  this  power  really  rests  with  the 
people  themselves,  for  all  authority  in  making  or  adminis- 
tering laws  is  exercised  by  persons  whom  the  people  have 
chosen  to  represent  them  —  that  is,  to  act  in  their  behalf. 

Most  civilized  countries  are  governed  under  a  written 
constitution  —  that  is,  a  fundamental  law  expressing  the 
most  vital  facts  about  the  form  and  powers  of  its  govern- 
ment. They  generally  provide,  too,  that  the  constitution 
shall  be  more  difficult  to  change  than  the  ordinary  law. 
Practically  every  political  community  in  the  United  States 
has  something  of  the  kind  and  would  feel  lost  without  it. 
Great  Britain,  however,  has  none.  The  important  laws, 
political  documents,  and  customs  which  have  been  handed 
down  from  the  past  and  form  the  background  of  its  gov- 
ernment serve  as  an  unwritten  constitution. 

Which  kind  do  you  think  is  better  for  the  United  States?  for 
Great  ^Britain?  for  Russia?  for  France?  for  China? 

10.  Forms  of  Government.  —  Not  often  in  history  have 
states  made  changes  in  the  form  of  their  governments  that 
were  at  the  same  time  sudden  and  radical.  Usually  a  state's 
form  of  government  has  just  grown  naturally  out  of  its  own 
needs.  Several  forms  of  government  have  therefore  de- 
veloped and  still  exist  in  the  countries  of  to-day,  and  the  same 
country  may  have  had  different  forms  at  different  times  in 
its  history.     The  most  common  types  are  defined  below. 

(1)  A  monarchy  is  a  government  in  which  sovereign  power 
is  exercised  by  one  person  or  in  the  name  of  one  person.  If 
one  person  possesses  all  authority  we  call  it  an  absolute 
monarchy.     If  his  power  is  restricted  by  a  constitution  or 


14 


Needs  and  Forms  of  Government 


by  the  choice  of  other  officials  by  the  people,  we  have  a 
limited  monarchy.  No  monarch  to-day  possesses  fully  ab- 
solute power  such  as  the  Czars  of  Russia,  Frederick  II  of 
Prussia,  and  Louis  XIV  of  France  once  exercised.  The  dif- 
ference now  is  simply  in  the  extent  to  which  his  power  is 
limited.    The  Kaiser  retained  extensive  powers  later  than 


The  Royal  Guard  Assembling  at  Windsor  Castle. 


most  other  monarchs.  England  still  has  a  King,  but  has 
reduced  his  power  almost  to  zero,  and  is  a  monarchy  only  in 
name. 

(2)  An  oligarchy  is  a  government  controlled  by  a  small 
portion  of  the  people.  If  this  small  portion  is  made  up  of 
wealthy  or  noble  families,  we  generally  style  it  an  aristocracy. 
Several  governments  still  contain  aristocratic  elements,  but 
no  one  is  now  wholly  aristocratic. 


The  Government  of  the  United  States      15 

(3)  A  democracy  is  a  government  in  which  all  power  is  exer- 
cised directly  by  the  people.  It  is  next  to  impossible  for  this 
to  be  done  except  in  small  communities,  but  the  spirit  of  de- 
mocracy prevails  in  many  republics  and  some  monarchies .  All 
seem  to  be  moving  in  that  direction,  though  some  go  slowly. 

(4)  A  republic  is  a  government  in  which  the  sovereign 
power  is  in  the  hands  of  the  people,  but  is  exercised  through 
officials  whom  they  elect.  The  United  States,  France,  and 
Switzerland  are  the  most  successful  of  existing  republics. 
Some  so-called  republics,  as  in  certain  Central  and  South 
American  states,  are  hardly  worthy  of  the  name. 

But  all  republics  are  not  organized  alike,  nor  are  all  mon- 
archies. In  some  of  them  almost  all  authority  is  centralized 
in  the  national  government.  The  subdivisions  of  this  cen- 
tral organization  are  almost  entirely  for  convenience  in 
administration  or  for  the  election  of  officers.  France  is  the 
best  example  of  a  centralized  republic.  Italy  and  Sweden 
are  centralized  monarchies. 

Other  governments  have  been  formed  by  the  bringing 
together,  or  federating,  of  smaller  bodies.  In  such  gov- 
ernments, some  authority  is  entrusted  to  the  central 
government  and  the  rest  is  left  in  the  hands  of  the  parts 
or  divisions  which  compose  the  nation.  If  the  power  of  the 
central  government  is  relatively  weak,  we  call  such  a  union 
a  confederation.  If  the  central  government's  powers  are  ex- 
tensive and  strong,  we  have  a  federation.  The  United  States 
and  Switzerland  are  republics  which  are  federations ;  Ger- 
many also  has  been  an  example  of  the  federal  principle. 

Find  the  meaning  of  bureaucracy ;  autocracy.  What  form  of 
government  is  best?  Would  that  form  be  best  for  every  country? 
What  changes  in  the  form  of  governments  have  occurred  in  recent 
years?  How  much  ought  people  to  know  about  their  own  govern- 
ment? Who  would  be  most  likely  to  favor  keeping  the  people  in 
ignorance? 

11.  The  Government  of  the  United  States.  —  We  call 
the  United  States  a  federal  republic.    It  has  a  well-planned 


16  Needs  and  Forms  of  Government 

written  constitution,  which  assigns  certain  important  and 
far-reaching  powers  to  the  central  government,  but  leaves 
many  vital  activities  to  be  carried  on  by  the  governments  of 
the  divisions  which  make  up  the  federation.  These  forty- 
eight  divisions,  some  of  which  existed  long  before  the  Union 
was  formed,  are  called  states. 

Each  state  has  a  constitution  of  its  own,  makes  its  own 
laws,  and  has  its  own  courts,  which  must  not,  however, 
conflict  with  the  laws  and  courts  of  the  federal  government. 
The  states  are  divided  into  administrative  divisions  called 
counties,  and  the  counties  are  composed  of  cities,  townshipSj 
boroughs,  or  villages. 

Get  this  governmental  arrangement  clearly  in  mind  right 
here,  for  we  shall  frequently  have  to  refer  to  some  part  of  it 
as  we  proceed  with  our  study.  Notice,  too,  that  the  state 
is  not  a  federation  as  the  national  government  is.  The  sub- 
divisions of  the  state  are  created  by  the  state,  and  exercise 
only  such  authority  as  the  state  permits  them  to  possess. 

12.  Departments  of  Government.  —  Every  form  of  gov- 
ernment works  in  three  great  fields  of  activity,  which  are 
known  as  the  three  departments  of  government.  By  the 
legislative  department  the  laws  are  made.  By  the  executive 
department  the  laws  are  put  into  operation.  By  the  judicial 
department  the  meaning  of  laws  is  determined  and  decisions 
are  made  when  people  are  accused  of  breaking  them. 

In  the  United  States  we  have  tried  to  distinguish  and  set 
apart  these  three  departments  in  every  grade  of  organized 
government,  from  the  federal  government  down  to  the 
smallest  local  organization.  Just  as  Congress  makes  the 
laws  for  the  whole  nation,  so  the  state  legislature  makes 
laws  for  the  state  and  the  council  for  the  city.  As  the 
President  is  the  chief  executive  of  the  nation,  so  each  state 
has  a  governor  and  most  cities  a  mayor  to  serve  in  a  similar 
capacity  for  them.  And  the  police  magistrates  or  aldermen 
or  justices  of  the  peace  perform  in  a  humble  way  the  judicial 
services  for  a  city  or  town  just  as  truly  as  the  thoroughly 


Checks  and  Balances  17 

organized  courts  of  the  state  and  the  nation  do  in  their 
respective  spheres. 

Put  the  facts  of  this  section  in  the  form  of  a  table  or  diagram. 

13.  Checks  and  Balances.  —  In  practice  we  do  not  always 
find  it  easy  to  keep  these  three  departments  entirely  separate. 
Besides,  our  forefathers  feared  that  one  department  might 
sometime  become  so  strong  as  to  endanger  the  liberties  of 
the  people  unless  it  could  be  restrained  in  some  way,  if  nec- 
essary. They  worked  out,  therefore,  an  elaborate  system 
of  "  checks  and  balances  "  to  avert  this  danger. 

The  President  may  veto  a  bill  passed  by  Congress  or  the 
courts  may  declare  it  unconstitutional.1  Congress,  in  turn, 
may,  by  "  impeachment  "  proceedings,  remove  from  office 
a  president,  a  judge,  or  other  national  officer.  Most  state 
and  city  governments  have  similar  provisions.  In  fact,  so 
thoroughly  "  checked  "  are  most  of  our  public  officials  that 
the  people's  liberties  are  safe  from  any  serious  danger. 

Can  you  find  legislative,  executive,  and  judicial  departments 
in  your  home,  your  church,  your  school,  or  a  big  business  concern  ? 
Are  there  any  "checks  and  balances"  in  these  organizations?  if 
not,  why  not  ? 

QUESTIONS 

Define  government.  Would  it  be  possible  to  get  along  without 
it?  What  specific  functions  does  it  perform?  Explain  police 
power.  Define  law;  sovereignty.  Who  are  the  sovereigns  in  each 
of  the  leading  nations?  Define  constitution.  Explain  the  two 
kinds  of  constitutions. 

What  are  the  different  types  of  national  governments?  Explain 
each  and  give  an  example  if  you  can. 

Show  the  differences  in  the  form  of  organization  of  governments. 

Outline  the  form  of  government  of  the  United  States.     Of  what 


1  Notice  that  the  President  may  disapprove  a  bill  simply  because  some 
features  of  it  seem  to  him  unwise  or  unfair.  The  courts  can  set  aside  a 
law  only  when  in  their  opinion  the  Constitution  has  given  no  authority  for 
Congress  to  pass  it. 


18  Needs  and  Forms  of  Government 

are  the  states  composed?  Make  a  diagram  that  will  show  the 
relation  of  the  nation,  the  states,  and  their  subdivisions. 

Name  and  explain  the  departments  of  government.  Give  ex- 
amples  of  each  in  the  national  government,  the  state,  and  your 
own  community. 

Explain  the  principle  of  checks  and  balances.  Why  do  we  have 
this  ?     Can  it  be  carried  too  far  ? 

SPECIAL  TOPICS 

The  Effect  of  the  Great  War  on  the  Governments  of  the  World. 
The  Benefits  of  Democracy. 

A  Sketch  of  the  Changes  in  Government  in  France,  Japan,  China, 
Russia,  or  Germany. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  CITIZEN— HIS  EIGHTS  AND  DUTIES 


The  great  city  is  that  which  has  the  greatest  man  or  woman. 

--Whitman. 

14.  Explanations.  —  It  is  to-day  a  principle  recognized 
the  world  over  that,  with  a  few  exceptions,  every  person 
within  the  limits  of  a  country  is  bound  to  obey  the  laws  and 
respect  the  authority  of  that  country's  government.  But 
all  persons  within  the  borders  of  a  country  do  not  stand  in 
the  same  relation  towards  its  government.  The  inhabitants 
of  a  country  may  be  divided  into  two  groups  —  citizens 
and  aliens. 

The  citizen  is  entitled  to  full  protection  from  the  govern- 
ment wherever  he  may  be  and  may  exercise  various  privileges 
which  are  not  guaranteed  to  others.  In  return  he  must 
give  his  undivided  allegiance  and  support  to  the  authority 
of  his  government  and  if  necessary  may  be  called  upon  to 
serve  it  directly.  Our  Constitution  says  that  all  persons 
born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States  are  citizens  of  the 
United  States  and  of  the  state  in  which  they  live. 

Does  that  mean  you?  If  you  are  a  citizen  when  did  you  become 
one? 

The  alien  is  a  foreign-born  resident  of  a  country  who  has 
not  given  allegiance  to  its  government.  Ordinarily  the 
government  protects  his  life  and  property  as  long  as  he  is 
within  its  limits,  but  is  under  no  compulsion  to  give  him  any 
special  privileges  or  assume  any  responsibility  for  him  out- 
side our  own  territory.  An  alien  is  usually  not  compelled 
to  support  this  government  by  rendering  military  or  other 

19 


20 


The  Citizen 


special  service,  but  must  obey  our  laws  the  same  as  any 
other  person. 

As  to  the  right  to  transfer  citizenship  and  allegiance  from 
one  government  to  another,  the  nations  of  the  world  have 
not  always  agreed.  Before  the  so-called  War  of  1812, 
England  maintained  "Once  an  Englishman,  always  an 
Englishman,' '  and  her  insistence  upon  this  was  one  of  the 


SSm^Sb  -'  SSSSSk  xb» 

1 

Copyright,  Underwood  &  Urfderwood 

Administering  the  Oath  of  Allegiance  to  Aliens  Desiring  Citizenship. 

In  New  York,  where  this  picture  was  taken,  and  in  every  other  large 
city  in  the  country,  there  was  a  great  rush  of  aliens  to  be  naturalized  after 
war  with  Germany  became  imminent.  A  large  number  of  the  applicants 
were  Germans  and  Austrians. 


causes  of  that  war.  Some  European  countries  still  hold 
that  doctrine,  though  England  herself  has  long  ago  adopted 
the  view  of  the  United  States.  We  have  always  held  that 
a  person  has  the  rights  of  expatriation  and  naturalization 
—  that  is,  of  giving  up  his  allegiance  to  the  country  of  his 
birth  and  acquiring  citizenship  in  another  countiy. 

15  Acquisition  of  Citizenship.  —  There  are  in  all  five 
ways  by  which  persons  have  received  American  citizenship 
at  some  time  or  other. 


Naturalization 


21 


(1)  By  birth  in  the  United  States ; 

(2)  By  being  born  of  American  parents  who  were  living 
abroad;  (In  this  case,  if  the  child  continues  to  live  in  a 
foreign  country,  he  must  choose  when  he  becomes  of  age  the 
country  in  which 


rutteH 


<r*J 


V 


NKW     YOUK 


4  in 


a. 


& 


he  wishes  to  en- 
joy citizenship) ; 

(3)  By  natu- 
ralization ; 

(4)  By  mar- 
riage, in  the  case 
of  a  woman,  for 
it  is  considered 
in  law  that  a 
woman  who  mar- 
ries a  man  of  a 
different  nation- 
ality receives  the 
nationality  of 
her  husband ; 

(5)  By  an- 
nexation, when 
the  treaty  of  an- 
nexation, as  in 
the  case  of  the 
Louisiana  Pur- 
chase, gave  citi- 
zenship in  the 
United  States 
to  all  its  inhab- 
itants. This  last  provision  is  not  invariable,  for  when  the 
Philippines  were  annexed  Congress  declined  to  recognize 
the  Filipinos  as  American  citizens  and  was  sustained  by  the 
Supreme  Court  in  that  attitude. 

16.   Naturalization.  —  The    process    of   naturalization   is 
briefly  as  follows :    When  a  foreigner  desires  to  become  an 


• 


Copy  of  a  Naturalization  Certificate. 


22  The  Citizen 

American  citizen,  he  must,  if  over  18  years  old,  go  before  a 
state  or  federal  court  and  formally  declare  his  intention  of 
abandoning  his  allegiance  to  the  government  under  which 
he  was  born  and  of  becoming  a  citizen  of  the  United  States. 

By  the  time  he  has  lived  in  the  United  States  at  least  five 
years,  providing  that  not  less  than  two  years  have  passed 
since  he  filed  his  declaration  of  intention,  he  may  again 
appear  in  court,  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  United 
States,  and  receive  his  certificate  of  naturalization.  This 
process  makes  him  fully  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  with 
every  privilege  that  a  native-born  citizen  has  except  of  be- 
coming president  or  vice-president. 

When  a  foreign-born  married  man  is  naturalized,  it  is  un- 
derstood that  his  wife  and  any  children  under  21  years  of 
age  are  made  American  citizens  by  the  same  process.  Only 
whites  and  negroes  may  be  naturalized.  Anarchists  are 
excluded. 

What  are  the  reasons  for  the  last  restriction?  Do  you  think  the 
requirements  for  naturalization  are  strict  enough?  In  what  ways 
might  an  American  citizen  lose  his  citizenship?  Should  a  married 
woman's  citizenship  depend  on  that  of  her  husband? 

17.  Rights  of  Citizens.  —  A  citizen  of  the  United  States 
is  also  a  citizen  of  the  state  in  which  he  lives,  though  if  living 
abroad  he  possesses  only  national  citizenship.  Commonly 
we  do  not  think  of  any  distinction  between  state  and  national 
citizenship.  Yet  when  a  person  moves  from  one  state  to 
another  he  may  find  that  his  rights  as  a  citizen  are  not  ex- 
actly the  same  in  the  new  state,  though  his  national  citizen- 
ship has  not  been  affected  at  all.  We  can  summarize  prac- 
tically all  the  rights  of  citizenship  guaranteed  by  the  national 
and  the  state  constitutions  under  three  general  heads : 

(1)  Personal  Security.  —  Every  citizen  has  the  right  to 
enjoy  fife,  health,  and  a  good  reputation,  and  no  one  may 
by  any  unjust  act  deprive  him  of  them.  If  that  is  at- 
tempted, he  may  ask  the  state  to  protect  him.  Even  the 
government  itself  may  not  take  the  citizen's  life,  liberty, 


Personal  Liberty 


23 


or  property  "  without  due  process  of  law."    His  house  may 
not  be  searched  unless  a  warrant  has  been  issued  for  that 
purpose.     Soldiers  may  not  be  quartered  there  without  his 
consent  except  in  time  of  war,  and  then 
only  if  he  is  properly  paid  for  any  loss 
he  suffers.     He  may  keep  and  bear  arms 
for  his  own  defense. 

Under  what  circumstances  should  a  man  be 
allowed  to  carry  a  deadly  weapon  ? 

If  he  is  accused  of  crime,  he  must  be 
indicted  by  a  grand  jury  (§156)  before 
he  is  tried.     He  is  entitled  to  a  trial  by 
jury  and  to  have  a  lawyer  and  witnesses 
in  his  behalf.     He  cannot  be  compelled 
to  testify  against  himself.     If  he  is  once        Warning  Sign. 
acquitted,  he  cannot  be  tried  again  for 
the  same  offense.     Excessive  bail  must  not  be  demanded 
when  he  is  under  arrest,  and  if  he  is  convicted,  no  cruel  and 
unusual  punishment  may  be  inflicted  or  unreasonable  fine 
imposed. 

(2)  Personal  Liberty.  —  A  citizen  may  go  wherever  he 
wishes  and  do  whatever  he  desires,  so  long  as  he  violates 
no  law  of  the  state  and  does  not  interfere  with  the  equal 
rights  of  others.  No  man  may  be  held  as  a  slave.  Every 
citizen  may  worship  as  he  pleases.  He  has  the  right  of  free 
speech,  a  free  press,  and  freedom  to  meet  with  other  citizens 
and  to  petition  the  government  to  relieve  injustice. 

Why  are  people  sometimes  arrested  for  holding  meetings  ? 
Should  a  man  have  the  right  to  work  when,  for  whom,  and  for 
what  price  he  pleases? 

The  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  inherited  from  England,  is  re- 
garded as  a  sacred  privilege  to  be  used  in  defense  of  both 
the  rights  we  have  mentioned.  If  a  person  is  arrested  and 
held  in  prison,  his  friends  may  go  before  a  judge  and  secure 
a  writ,  or  order,  commanding  the  officer  in  charge  of  the 


24  The  Citizen 

prisoner  to  bring  him  before  the  judge  for  a  hearing.  The 
judge  will  then  decide  whether  the  prisoner  shall  be  tried 
at  once,  let  out  on  bail,  or  treated  in  some  other  reasonable 
way. 

The  object  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  is  to  prevent  the 
holding  of  a  person  in  prison  indefinitely  without  giving  him 
a  trial.  In  time  of  war  or  other  serious  public  danger,  when 
it  may  be  necessary  to  keep  men  under  guard  who  are 
suspected  of  disloyalty,  spying,  or  other  offensive  conduct, 
the  writ  may  be  suspended. 

Read  the  story  of  "Coxey's  army"  in  Washington  in  1894. 
Was  their  treatment  a  violation  of  these  rights  ? 

(3)  Private  Property.  —  A  citizen  is  free  to  acquire,  make 
use  of,  and  dispose  of,  possessions  of  any  kind,  in  a  lawful 
and  honorable  way,  without  interference  from  any  one. 
This  right  is  fundamental,  like  the  others,  for  upon  it  rests 
the  entire  foundation  of  modern  business  and  trade.  The 
government  itself  is  forbidden  to  take  private  property, 
even  for  public  use,  without  fair  payment. 

Under  what  conditions  should  a  man  not  be  permitted  to  use  his 
private  property  in  any  way  that  suits  him? 

If  your  rights  in  the  use  of  property  conflict  with  another  man's 
right  to  life,  health,  or  happiness,  which  should  give  way?. 

Every  governmental  organization  —  city,  county,  state, 
or  nation  —  may  exercise  the  right  of  eminent  domain, 
however,  and  sometimes  this  is  granted  to  private  corpora- 
tions. Under  this  power  the  government  may  take,  even 
against  the  owner's  wish,  all  or  a  part  of  a  piece  of  property, 
but  if  there  is  any  difference  of  opinion  about  its  value  the 
government  will  have  the  value  determined  by  a  special 
board  or  committee  and  then  force  the  owner  to  accept  that 
amount. 

Discuss  the  limitations  which  must  be  accepted  to  any  of  these 
rights  in  order  to  permit  others  the  equal  enjoyment  of  them. 
Should  we  have  rights  against  our  governments  as  well  as  against 
persons?     Does  the  citizen  exist  for  the  benefit  of  his  country 


The  Duties  of  Citizens  25 

or  the  government  for  the  benefit  of  the  citizen?  Are  all  men 
created  equal?  with  equal  rights?  Is  there  danger  that  in  time  of 
peace  citizens  will  be  denied  any  of  their  rights? 

18.  The  Duties  of  Citizens.  —  Most  people  think  and 
talk  more  about  their  own  rights  than  about  the  rights  of 
others  or  their  own  duties.  It  would  not  be  fair  to  leave 
our  discussion  of  citizenship  without  suggesting  the  fact 
that  rights  and  opportunities  bring  obligations  along  with 
them.  Sometimes  people  do  not  get  all  their  rights.  Some- 
times, though  rarely,  an  innocent  man  is  sent  to  prison. 
But  far  more  common  are  those  who  sneak  out  of  the  per- 
formance of  their  just  duties  and  who  treat  the  opportunities 
of  a  free  country  as  so  many  more  chances  for  selfish  ad- 
vancement. 

The  "  square  deal "  ought  to  be  the  aim  of  every  citizen. 
We  talk  often,  for  example,  about  the  "  right "  to  vote. 
Voting  is  not  a  right.  It  is  a  privilege  which  the  state  gives 
to  those  whom  it  considers  fitted  to  exercise  it.  And  it  is 
a  privilege  which  every  voter  ought  to  exercise  with  care, 
thoughtfulness,  and  honesty.  It  is  a  citizen's  duty,  if  he 
has  the  voting  power,  to  use  it,  and  to  use  it  only  after  he 
has  thought  carefully  about  the  issues  of  an  election  and 
the  men  who  are  candidates  for  office. 

Should  voting  be  made  compulsory? 

When  men  have  been  elected  and  laws  are  made,  it  is  a 
citizen's  duty  to  respect  their  authority.  If  he  does  not 
like  them,  he  has  the  privilege  of  trying  to  get  them  changed 
by  the  peaceful  means  that  are  open  to  every  citizen,  but  he 
has  no  right  to  refuse  outright  to  obey  them. 

Europeans  say  we  are  the  most  lawless  people  in  the  civilized 
world.  Is  that  true?  Whether  true  or  not,  is  it  complimentary ? 
Does  the  amount  of  law  in  existence  affect  the  extent  of  a  citizen's 
rights?  What  do  you  think  the  Declaration  of  Independence  meant 
in  saying  that  "governments  derive  their  just  powers  from  the  con- 
sent of  the  governed"? 


26  The  Citizen 

19.  Some  Questions  on  Citizenship.  —  Preaching,  of  the 
style  that  dictates  to  a  man  what  he  ought  and  ought  not 
to  do,  is  sometimes  less  effective  than  quietly  dropping  a 
hint  which  will  make  him  think  the  thing  out  for  himself. 
We  are  therefore  going  to  put  the  rest  of  our  treatment  of 
this  topic  in  the  form  of  questions,  asking  you  to  think  about 
them  and  answer  them  honestly. 

Should  a  person  pay  taxes  willingly?  Does  the  world 
owe  every  man  a  living,  regardless  of  how  much  he  does 
himself?  Is  it  a  man's  duty  to  serve  as  a  juror,  if  he  is 
summoned?  Is  a  line  of  conduct  justifiable  in  business  or 
pohtics  which  is  unjustifiable  in  private  fife?  Is  it  a  citizen's 
duty  to  give  information  to  the  authorities  about  law-breakers? 
Is  it  ever  a  citizen's  right  or  duty  to  take  the  law  into  his 
own  hands?  Should  a  public  officer  enforce  some  laws 
and  neglect  others?  How  can  you,  as  a  citizen  not  yet  in 
full  possession  of  all  the  rights  and  privileges  of  citizenship, 
best  help  in  the  cause  of  good  government  and  social  welfare  ? 
Does  it  make  any  difference  to  the  community  if  you  are 
careless  about  your  own  health  or  property? 


QUESTIONS 

Give  a  definition  of  citizen.  Who  are  citizens  in  the  United 
States?  Are  you?  In  what  respects  do  the  duties  or  privileges  of 
an  alien  differ  from  those  of  a  citizen  ?  What  difference  of  opinion 
has  existed  between  nations  in  regard  to  transferring  citizenship? 
When  this  takes  place,  what  should  be  the  citizen's  feeling  toward 
the  land  of  his  first  citizenship  ? 

By  what  means  have  persons  at  some  time  or  other  acquired 
American  citizenship  ? 

Explain  the  process  of  naturalization.  Under  what  circumstances 
might  an  alien  become  naturalized  without  any  act  of  his  own? 
Who  may  not  be  naturalized?  ' 

To  what  extent  is  a  person's  citizenship  affected  by  moving  from 
one  state  to  another? 

Explain  the  three  general  rights  of  American  citizenship.  Give 
four  or  five  special  applications  of  each  general  right.    Explain 


Special  Topics  27 

habeas  corpus;  eminent  domain.  Show  with  each  special  right  the 
limits  which  are  placed  upon  it  by  the  equal  rights  of  others. 

Which  are  more  important,  rights  or  duties  ?  Are  voting,  office 
holding,  and  obedience  to  the  laws,  rights,  duties,  or  both  ? 

Do  you  think  of  any  other  important  questions  relating  to  the 
duties  of  a  citizen  besides  those  in  section  19  ? 

Give  a  brief  convincing  statement  of  the  reasons  why  a  study  of 
Civics  is  essential  for  every  school  pupil. 


p      SPECIAL  TOPICS 

A  Naturalization  Court.  (If  copies  of  the  form  to  be  filled  out  by 
an  alien  at  his  declaration  of  intention,  or  of  a  naturalization  cer- 
tificate, can  be  secured,  it  will  make  the  matter  seem  more  real.) 

German-Americans  during  the  Great  War. 

Patriotism  in  War  Time. ' 

Patriotism  in  Peace. 


Community  Welfare.  —  We  shall  next  discuss  some  of  the  special 
problems  that  every  community  deals  with  or  ought  to  deal  with. 
In  considering  these  we  shall  have  a  fine  chance  to  observe  the  oppor- 
tunities that  exist  for  every  citizen,  old  and  young,  to  contribute  his 
little  bit  toward  making  his  community  the  prettiest,  cleanest,  happiest 
place  that  it  can  possibly  become.  No  one  should  be  satisfied  with 
less  than  that,  even  if  he  does  not  realize  his  ambitions.  "Watch 
your  step,"  as  the  saying  is,  and  be  sure  it  is  no  fault  of  yours  that 
your  community  is  less  fine  a  place  than  it  can  be. 

In  taking  up  the  subjects  that  follow  —  the  "elements  of  com- 
munity welfare,"  they  are  often  called  —  let  us  observe  in  each  case 
how  they  apply  to  our  community.  Is  it  as  good  as  it  might  be?  If 
not,  whose  fault  is  it?  Can  any  improvement  be  made,  and  how? 
Is  there  anything  we  can  do  about  it  as  individuals  ?  If  we  can  bring 
these  matters  right  home  to  ourselves,  we  can  make  our  study  exceed- 
ingly profitable  in  all  the  things  that  make  for  good  citizenship.  We 
can  show  our  patriotism  just  as  truly  in  doing  so  as  in  learning  poems 
about  the  flag  and  celebrating  the  Fourth  of  July,  worthy  as  those 
endeavors  may  be.  Let  our  loyalty  and  good  will  appear  in  doing  both 
the  things  that  every  one  sees  and  the  quieter,  harder  things  that  few 
may  ever  know  about 


PAET   II 

ELEMENTS   OF   COMMUNITY   WELFARE 

CHAPTER   IV 

THE  PLANNING  OF  THE  COMMUNITY 


We  are  concerned  .  .  .  with  making  our  cities  year  by  year  in 
their  physical  arrangement  and  equipment,  healthier,  pleasanter, 
and  more  economical  instruments  for  the  use  of  the  people  who  dwell 
within  them.  —  F.  L.  Olmstead. 


20.  Importance  of  Community  Planning.  —  Convenience, 
health,  and  beauty  are^three  notable  objects  to  be  attained 
in  laying  Out  a  city  or  town.  If  a  city  is  laid  out  properly 
in  the  first  place,  one  needs  to  waste  little  time  following 
the  windings  of  "  corkscrew  "  streets,  and  can  go  almost 
directly  from  any  important  place  to  almost  any  other.  To 
the  modern  business  man,  in  a  very  real  sense,  "  time  is 
money."  A  well-planned  city  saves  both  time  and  energy 
for  its  citizens. 

Again,  in  some  communities  thousands  or  even  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  people  herd  together  in  rickety  tenements 
on  narrow  alleys  and  close-built  streets,  where  in  the  hot 
days  of  summer  a  real  breath  of  fresh  air  or  a  cooling  breeze 
is  a  veritable  godsend,  and  the  smallest  patch  of  green  grass 
is  like  a  bit  of  heaven,  where  at  any  season  of  the  year  the 
darkened  rooms  and  close  contact  of  the  people  make  it  as 
easy  as  possible  for  everybody  to  acquire  his  neighbor's 
ailments  and  vices. 

But  in  a  properly  planned  community  the  streets  are  wide 

28 


Importance  of  Community  Planning        29 

enough  and  well  enough  arranged  to  allow  the  winds  to 
sweep  through  and  clear  away  the  foul  air.  Buildings  are 
not  permitted  which  force  their  tenants  to  live  without  pri- 


Ml 


Two  Types  of  Back  Yards. 
These  scenes  are  only  a  few  blocks  apart. 


vacy  and  comfort,  without  fresh  air  and  light  and  safety. 
Every  house  need  not  sit  up  so  close  to  the  next  that  a 
street  is  almost  like  a  continuous  wall.     A  small  back  yard 


SO  The  Planning  of  the  Community 

with  perhaps  a  little  garden  can  furnish  rest  and  pleasure 
to  every  workingman  if  other  thoughts  than  money-grabbing 
are  at  work  when  his  part  of  the  city  is  laid  out. 

Beauty  is  almost  as  easy  to  have  as  ugliness.  If  some  one 
plans  it  soon  enough,  a  river-bank,  kept  like  a  park,  can 
advertise  the  attractiveness  of  a  city  instead  of  presenting 
a  waterfront  that  is  an  eyesore  to  a  traveler.  Tree-lined 
avenues  can  give  shade  from  the  burning  sun  and  add  their 
natural  beauty  and  dignity  to  the  whole  city  instead  of 
serving  simply  as  thoroughfares  for  travel.  Buildings  can 
follow  the  lines  of  art  in  their  construction  and  stand  in 
right  relation  and  proportion  to  their  surroundings  instead 
of  being  notable  for  nothing  but  size  or  ugliness. 

In  the  picture  on  page  42,  notice  how  the  irregularity  of  the 
buildings  detracts  from  the  appearance  of  an  otherwise  well-planned 
street. 

21.  Notable  Examples.  —  Most  communities  were  not 
planned.  They  just  happened.  It  is  striking  to  note  the 
difference  within  the  same  community,  when  we  compare 
the  older  part  of  it  with  the  part  that  was  laid  out  since 
people  began  to  realize  that  city  planning  is  important. 
Boston  and  Pittsburgh  are  good  examples  of  cities  that 
merely  "  happened."  One  can  easily  accept  the  tradition 
that  Boston's  streets  follow  the  lines  of  old  cow-paths,  when 
he  looks  at  a  map  of  the  city,  or  better  still  when  he  tries 
to  get  around  in  the  city  before  he  has  been  there  long  enough 
to  get  "  the  lay  of  the  land." 

The  older  part  of  New  York  city  shows  somewhat  the  same 
state  of  affairs,  in  contrast  with  the  later  portions,  where 
the  long  avenues  run  north  and  south  and  are  crossed  at 
right  angles  by  streets  numbered  in  regular  order.  Phila- 
delphia is  another  city  that  is  laid  out  on  the  checkerboard 
plan,  at  least  that  portion  of  it  between  the  Delaware  and 
Schuylkill  rivers.  We  find  evidence  of  planning  in  some 
smaller  cities,  as  well  as  in  the  newer  sections  of  the  larger 
ones. 


Notable  Examples 


31 


The  one  fine  example  of  a  well-planned  American  city  is 
Washington,  conceived  by  the  genius  of  the  Frenchman, 
Major  L'Enfant.  The  Capitol  is  the  center  of  the  city's 
plan.  Streets  running  north  and  south  intersect  at  right 
angles  with  others  running  east  and  west.     To  vary  the 


Map  of 
PITTSBURGH 


A  City  That  Was  Not  Planned. 

Compare  this  map  with  the  pictures  on  pages  32,  45,  and  52.  What 
difficulties  in  planning  would  attend  a  city  so  located,  even  if  proper  fore- 
sight had  been  used?  Why  are  the  railroads  in  the  places  where  you 
observe  them?  Are  the  parks  well  situated?  Refer  to  this  map  in  the 
discussion  of  the  various  city  problems  which  we  consider. 

Black  figures  show  the  number  of  each  ward. 

monotony  of  the  scheme,  and  to  promote  the  beauty  and 
convenience  of  the  plan,  a  system  of  diagonal  avenues 
intersects  the  "  checkerboard."  Where  the  avenues  and 
streets  come  together,  little  parks  known  as  "  circles  "  are 
formed.     Really  a  beautiful  city  is  our  national  capital. 

Some  of  the  European  capitals  have  also  gained  a  reputa- 
tion for  their  beauty  and  convenience.    Paris  is  now  one 


32  The  Planning  of  the  Community 

of  the  finest  cities  of  the  world  in  appearance.  Its  boule- 
vards are  world-famous.  Perhaps  no  street  in  any  city  is 
better  known  than  the  beautiful  Champs  Elysees  in  the  great 
French  capital.  Yet  in  most  instances  large  parts  of  this 
city  had  to  be  remade  and  boulevards  constructed  at  great 
expense  in  order  to  atone  for  the  neglect  and  lack  of  foresight 
of  monarchs  centuries  ago.  London  is  indebted  even  to  such 
a  great  calamity  as  the  fire  of  1666  for  a  chance  to  rebuild 


What  Some  Communities  Have  to  Contend  With. 

on  a  bigger  and  better  scale.  San  Francisco  had  a  similar 
opportunity  in  1906,  of  which,  however,  she  only  partly 
took  advantage. 

22.  Topographical  Difficulties.  —  It  is  easier  to  say  how  a 
community  should  be  laid  out  than  it  is  to  fit  any  plan  to 
the  geographical  peculiarities  of  some  cities.  A  plan  that 
could  be  adopted  for  level  ground  like  that  on  which  Phil- 
adelphia is  situated  would  be  utterly  out  of  the  question  for 
San  Francisco  or  Seattle  or  Boston,  with  their  hills.  Take 
a  combination  of  three  rivers,  steep  hills,  and  gullies  carved 
by  nature  in  the  midst  of  these  hills,  such  as  Pittsburgh  has 
to  contend  with,  and  he  would  be  a  genius  indeed  who  could 


Systems  of  Street  Planning  33 

work  out  in  advance  a  plan  for  scientifically  laying  out  a 
great  city  at  that  place. 

A  city  located  on  an  ocean  or  lake  frontage,  with  a  harbor, 
has  to  keep  its  business  district  in  proper  touch  with  its 
wharves,  and  yet,  if  possible,  not  force  its  residential  sections 
away  from  the  sight  and  breezes  of  the  water.  A  town 
situated  on  both  sides  of  a  river  has  a  still  different  problem 
to  deal  with.  Sometimes  conditions  below  the  earth's 
surface  require  that  substantial  business  blocks  be  built  at 
a  certain  place  in  order  to  give  them  a  solid  foundation. 
When  that  is  the  case,  the  plan  of  the  city  simply  must  be 
adapted  to  that  fact.  We  can  say  in  general  not  much  more 
than  this  —  that  a  community  is  well  planned  if  it  is  suited 
to  its  surroundings  and  makes  them  minister  to  the  con- 
venience and  health  and  sense  of  beauty  of  its  people. 

What  traces  of  this  problem  do  you  find  in  your  own  community  ? 

23.  Systems  of  Street  Planning.  The  checkerboard 
system  of  laying  out  streets  has  met  much  favor  in  many 
places.  It  is  the  simplest  method  of  securing  regularity, 
and  makes  it  easy  to  identify  any  particular  spot.  Espe- 
cially if  an  orderly  scheme  of  naming  the  streets  is  observed 
and  the  plan  of  letting  each  block  count  for  100  in  number- 
ing houses  is  employed,  even  a  stranger  would  have  little 
excuse  for  getting  lost.  The  most  serious  objections  to  this 
system  are  the  monotony  of  appearance  which  it  produces 
and  the  necessity  of  going  around  too  many  right  angles  in 
getting  anywhere. 

But  if  this  plan  is  modified  by  laying  out  diagonal  avenues 
from  the  heart  of  a,  city  to  its  outer  corners  and  by  con- 
structing boulevards  to  encircle  the  city  and  reach  its  beauty 
spots,,  it  is  likely  to  serve  a  greater  variety  of  conditions 
than  any  other.  Some  people  like  the  spider-web  as  a  model 
for  laying  out  a  city's  streets,  but  it  is  seldom  used.  The 
"  ring  street,"  which  goes  all  the  way  around  a  city,  has  been 
constructed  in  some  European  cities  on  the  ground  occupied 


34  The  Planning  of  the  Community 


by  the  wall  and  moat  which  surrounded  the  city  in  medieval 
times. 

What  system  of  naming  and  numbering  streets  seems  best  to 
you?  How  would  your  system  work  if  applied  to  Pittsburgh  or 
McConnelsville  ?  What  systems  are  used  in  any  communities  that 
you  know  about  ? 


Sketch  of  McConnelsville,  Ohio. 
This  is  an  example  of  the  small  middle  western  community, 
seem  to  be  well  planned?    Discuss  its  main  features. 


Does  it 


24.  Civic  Centers.  —  The  idea  of  having  a  civic  center 
appeals  strongly  to  city  planners  of  to-day.  By  this  term 
is  meant  a  group  of  public  buildings  such  as  a  courthouse, 
city  hall,  post  office,  library,  or  other  institution  frequently 
used  by  the  people,  located  where  they  will  be  convenient 
of  access  by  street  car  or  otherwise  from  all  sections  of 
the  city.  This  will  naturally  be  at  the  point  where 
some  of  the  most  important  streets  intersect.  If  these 
buildings  are  well  arranged  and  a  small  park  with  fountains, 
monuments,  and  the  like,  laid  out,  a  sense  of  unity  and  an 


City  Zones 


35 


appreciation  of  beauty  will  be  promoted  in  the  minds  of 
the  people  more  than  by  almost  any  other  means. 

In  a  large  city  it  would  be  undesirable,  of  course,  to  have 
every  library,  school,  and  museum  crowded  into  one  section. 
In  that  case  several  smaller  centers  should  be  created  to 


The  Square, 


Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company 

Cleveland,  Ohio. 


serve  different  sections  of  the  city.  Parks  and  playgrounds 
are  likewise  needed,  so  placed  that  all  the  people  can  enjoy 
them  without  great  expense  for  carfare  or  waste  of  time. 

25.  City  Zones.  —  A  suggestion  which  has  been  adopted 
in  several  European  cities  and  has  been  recommended  for 
our  own  is  that  the  city  should  be  divided  into  zones.    Each 


36  The  Planning  of  the  Community 

zone  is  set  apart  for  a  certain  purpose  —  one  for  factories, 
another  for  business  houses,  another  for  residences  of  a  cer- 
tain kind,  and  so  on.  This  plan  helps  to  keep  the  value  of 
property  in  a  district  fairly  stable,  for  then  only  one  sort  of 
buildings  may  be  erected  in  one  section. 

As  it  is  now  in  most  of  our  cities,  a  man  may  build  an  at- 
tractive house  in  a  pleasant  residence  district  only  to  have 
his  neighbor  sell  out  to  an  automobile  company  which  puts 
up  a  public  garage  on  the  lot.  The  value  of  the  residence 
property  in  that  vicinity  at  once  drops  disastrously,  and  no- 
body but  the  automobile  firm  is  any  better  off.  This  is 
grossly  unfair.  To  crowd  all  business  places  into  one  section 
of  a  very  large  city  would  be  extremely  inconvenient,  but 
enough  business  zones  to  serve  all  sections  could  be  per- 
mitted, and  business  buildings  kept  out  of  the  purely  resi- 
dential districts.  New  York  was  the  first  large  American 
city  to  take  up  this  problem  officially.  In  1916  the  making 
of  a  comprehensive  zone  plan  for  the  city  was  accomplished. 

Make  a  large  map  of  your  city  or  neighborhood,  showing  as  we 
proceed  every  point  of  interest  or  importance  —  attractive  and  unat- 
tractive sections,  schools,  churches,  saloons,  factories,  etc. 

26.  Possibilities  of  Improvement. — Perhaps  you  think 
that  all  this  talk  of  city  planning  is  a  waste  of  breath  in  a 
long-established  community.  It  is  true  that  it  is  more 
work,  and  costs  more,  to  tear  down  buildings  in  order  to  lay 
out  a  broad,  beautiful  avenue  than  it  would  have  been  if 
the  avenue  had  been  planned  before  the  buildings  were 
erected.  Yet  a  city  seldom  regrets  improvements  after  they 
are  made,  if  the  money  which  they  cost  has  been  honestly 
spent  for  good  work. 

No  matter  what  natural  difficulties  a  city  may  labor  under, 
it  can  do  great  things,  if  it  will,  to  overcome  unfavorable 
surroundings.  Three  times  Pittsburgh  pared  off  the 
"  Hump,"  as  a  steep  hill  that  hemmed  in  its  business  section 
was  called,  and  the  same  city  has  raised  several  of  its  streets* 
many  feet  to  keep  them  above  the  floods  of  the  Allegheny 


Possibilities  of  Improvement  37 

river.  Boston  has  filled  in  its  Back  Bay  and  changed  it 
into  one  of  its  most  attractive  sections.  New  York  has 
allowed  tubes  and  tunnels  to  be  built  under  the  Hudson  and 
the  East  rivers,  and  up  and  down  the  whole  rocky  back  of 
Manhattan  Island.  Seattle  washed  away  the  greater  part 
of  a  hill  which  stood  between  its  business  district  and  a  part 
of  its  water  front.     Los  Angeles,  having  no  harbor,  reached 


Cutting  the  "Hump,"  Pittsburgh. 

out  twenty  miles  and   annexed  one,  spending  millions  of 
dollars  to  improve  it. 

Yet  the  cost  and  trouble  of  all  this  work  is  a  constant  re- 
minder to  every  community  that  it  is  good  sense  to  think 
ahead,  to  reason  out  the  direction  in  which  a  city  is  likely 
to  grow,  and  to  plan  for  a  growing  and  beautiful  city  rather 
than  a  stagnant  and  ugly  town.  After  a  community's 
business  streets  are  all  built  up  closely,  it  is  like  crying  over 
spilt  milk  to  bewail  their  narrowness  and  congestion.  If  a 
town,  when  it  grew,  left  no  place  for  parkways  or  breathing- 
spaces  in  its  crowded  districts,  there  is  not  much  hope  that 


38  The  Planning  of  the  Community- 

business  houses  will  be  torn  down  and  trees  and  grass  and 
flowers  put  in  their  place. 

Is  there  anything  which  your  community  can  do  or  ought  to  do 
to  improve  its  physical  appearance  or  arrangement?  Draw  an 
ideal  plan  for  your  own  community,  or  for  some  other  real  or 
imaginary  place. 

27.  The  Laying  Out  of  Streets.  —  A  city  or  borough  coun- 
cil or  other  similar  authority  must  generally  authorize  or 
order  the  laying  out  or  paving  of  streets.     If  a  very  exten- 


A  City  Street  Before  Improvement. 


sive  piece  of  work  of  this  kind  is  undertaken,  money  is  often 
secured  by  selling  bonds,  on  which  interest  must  be  paid  for 
a  long  term  of  years.  But  more  commonly  the  property  own- 
ers whose  lots  will  be  benefited  by  the  improvement  are 
asked  to  stand  the  expense  to  an  amount  corresponding  to 
the  increased  value  of  their  property.  Extra  expense  be- 
yond that  sum  will  be  paid  from  the  public  treasury. 

Sometimes,  when  a  house  or  lot  is  damaged  by  cutting 
through  a  new  street  or  changing  the  grade  of  an  old  one, 
the  owner  will  be  paid  by  the  city  instead  of  having  to  con- 


The  Laying  Out  of  Streets 


39 


tribute  to  the  cost  of  the  improvement.  After  a  street  has 
been  laid  out  and  paved,  the  cost  of  keeping  it  in  repair  is 
usually  borne  by  the  local  government. 

The  main  purpose  for  which  a  street  is  to  be  used  deter- 
mines largely  its  width,  general  plan  of  construction,  and 
kind  of  paving.  A  street  in  a  residential  district  where  there 
is  little  heavy  travel  can  be  constructed  less  expensively 
and  need  not  be  so  wide  as  a  business  street,  unless  special 
provision  is  made  for  trees,  grass  plots,  and  uncommonly  Wide 


The  Same  Street  After  Paving. 


sidewalks.     Thirty  feet  from  one  curbstone  to  the  other 
is  a  fairly  satisfactory  width  for  such  a  street. 

To  furnish  variety  and  add  to  the  beauty  of  a  district 
it  is  well  to  have  some  residential  streets  of  more  than  or- 
dinary width,  with  plenty  of  provision  for  trees  and  per- 
haps a  stretch  of  grass  or  a  row  of  flower  beds  in  the  middle 
of  the  street.  Streets  on  which  street  railway  tracks  are 
laid  should  be  several  feet  wider  than  would  otherwise  be 
necessary.  A  residential  street  is  much  more  attractive 
if  the  houses  are  not  crowded  close  upon  the  sidewalk,  and 


40  The  Planning  of  the  Community 

if  they  are  not  all  of  the  same  construction.  Grass,  trees, 
flowers,  and  shrubs  add  to  the  attractiveness  of  any  street. 
The  main  item  for  consideration  in  the  business  street  is 
convenience,  but  that  does  not  need  to  mean  that  all  trees 
and  everything  else  suggestive  of  beauty  must  be  removed. 
Some  business  streets  do  not  need  to  be  broader  than  the 
main  residential  highways,  but  the  most  important  business 


Street  Repairs  Under  Way. 


streets  ought  to  be  at  least  100  feet  wide.  They  must 
generally  permit  two  lines  of  car  tracks,  and  should  have 
room  on  each  side  for  at  least  two  lines  of  vehicles  to  pass, 
one  of  automobiles  or  other  fast  travel,  and  one  nearer  the 
sidewalk  for  slower  traffic. 

In  many  of  our  large  cities  much  narrower  streets  than  this 
are  the  rule,  but  the  city  with  narrow  streets  must  put  up  with 
delays  in  traffic  and  other  inconveniences  which  a  better 
planned  city  need  not  suffer  to  such  a  degree.  A  city  that 
has  to  be  encumbered  with  an  elevated  railroad  should  by 
all  means  keep  it  off  the  main  business  streets,  or  they  will 
not  be  able  to  accommodate  the  ordinary  surface  traffic. 


Street  Paving 


41 


Many  cities  are  troubled,  too,  by  delays  to  street  cars  when 
stubborn  wagon  drivers  keep  their  teams  on  the  car  tracks 
as  long  as  they  possibly  can. 

How  often  are  your  streets  repaired,  and  by  whom?     Draw  a 
plan  of  a  good  business  street ;  of  a  residential  street. 

28.    Street   Paving.  —  The   proper   surface   for   a   street 
depends  upon  the  principal  uses  to  which  it  is  put.     A  street 


Attractive  Residential  Street. 

that  is  to  be  used  for  heavy  teaming  must  be  paved  with 
material  that  will  stand  hard  pounding.  Block  stone  or 
cobble  stone  seem  to  be  necessary  for  such  streets,  particu- 
larly if  they  have  any  noticeable  grades,  in  spite  of  the 
roughness  and  noise  which  cannot  be  avoided  with  such 
paving. 

Some  cities  have  experimented  with  wood  blocks  on  their 
business  streets.  These  are  generally  made  of  yellow  pine 
treated  with  some  kind  of  creosote  or  tar  preparation  which 
adds  greatly  to  their  wearing  quality.  They  are  smooth  and 
almost  noiseless,  and  if  they  prove  durable  they  will  be 


42 


The  Planning  of  the  Community 


very  popular.    For  streets  whose  chief  traffic  is  automo* 
biles  or  light  wagons  sheet  asphalt  is  very  commonly  used 


Wide  Business  Street. 
Observe  how  the  irregularity  of  the  buildings  mars  the  appearance  of 
an  otherwise  attractive  thoroughfare.    A  narrow  business  street  is  shown 
on  page  274. 


A  Cobble  Stone  Street. 
See  other  types  of  paving  on  pages  39, 43, 44,  45,  47,  57, 261,  and  264. 

especially  in  the  residential  districts.  It  is  attractive  in 
appearance,  smooth,  and  not  very  noisy,  but  is  not  safe  to 
use  on  grades  that  are  at  all  steep. 


Street  Paving 


43 


Brick  pavements  are  found  in  both  residential  and  business 
streets.  They  are  comparatively  easy  to  repair  and  cost 
considerably  less  than  the  kinds  above  mentioned.     Some 


Laying  Wood  Block  Pavement 


? 

-■     k 

gg'       ||gMM| 

SluiJ 

" 

. 

W- 

"^•Sifc'^a 

SBfc'  •    ~- 

• 

Preparing  the  Street  for  Paving. 


city  streets,  as  well  as  many  park  roads  and  country  high- 
ways, are  macadamized ;  that  is,  their  top  coating  is  made 
of  fine  crushed  stone  rolled  hard  and  perhaps  treated  with  a 


44  The  Planning  of  the  Community 


tar  or  oil  preparation  to  bind  it  together  and  keep  down  the 
dust. 

There  is  much  more  in  paving  than  simply  laying  down  the 
surface  material.     The  street  must  often  be  dug  down  a 

e'flspkalt — ^ivwwwwvwwvwwaiT     foot  or  more  and   care- 


f  Binder  < 
6MConcrete- 


fully  graded, 
stone,    wood 


DETAILS  OF  ASPHALT  PAVING  ^al  "J™* 


For  a  block 

block,    or 

concrete 

thick   is 

commonly  put  in  as  a  base,  and  covered  with  a  layer  of  sand 
of  sufficient  thickness  to  serve  as  a  cushion.  On  this  the 
surface  material  is  placed. 

For  asphalt  or  macadamized  streets  the  bottom  layer  is 
composed  of  several  inches  of  concrete,  or  broken  stone 


Concrete  Alley  Pavement. 
This  is  not  as  clean  as  even  an  alley  should  be. 


not  larger  than  an  egg.  Asphalt  is  generally  of  two  grades, 
a  coarse  material  which  covers  the  broken  stone,  and  a  finer 
kind  for  the  surface.  This  must  be  thoroughly  rolled  and 
allowed  to  harden  before  it  is  used. 

What  kind  of  pavement  would  you  prefer  in  front  of  your  own 
house  or  place  of  business? 


Street  Cleaning  45 

29.  Street  Cleaning.  —  Streets  littered  with  paper  or 
strewn  with  all  kinds  of  dirt  indicate  that  the  people  of 
a  community  are  either  shamefully  lazy  or  distressingly 
ignorant.  It  is  discouraging  to  try  to  keep  a  lawn  looking 
attractive  if  the  street  in  front  is  filthy.  Beauty  in  any 
form  is  almost  out  of  the  question,  and,  worse  than  that,  the 
health  of  the  residents  on  that  street  is  menaced.  When 
we  see  children  playing  in  some  of  our  streets  —  the  only 
playgrounds  some  of  them  have,  poor  things !  —  we  wonder 


Asphalt  Pavement. 
This  kind  of  street  is  easy  to  clean. 

not  that  disease  is  common  among  them,  but  how  they  keep 
well  at  all. 

About  the  surest  way  to  clean  a  street  is  to  have  the  work 
done  by  men  employed  by  the  city,  who  go  over  its  whole 
surface  with  their  brooms  and  carts.  But  the  work  of 
these  "  white  wings,"  as  they  have  been  nicknamed,  must 
be  slow  and  therefore  rather  expensive.  Machines  with 
revolving  brushes  have  been  invented  which  sweep  the  dirt 
toward  the  curb,  where  it  can  be  shoveled  into  wagons  by 
men  following  the  sweeper.  A  few  places  have  used  a  kind 
of  vacuum  sweeper  on  the  streets.    The  sprinkling  wagon 


46  The  Planning  of  the  Community 

does  nothing  more  than  lay  the  dust  for  a  little  while,  and 
when  the  street  has  dried  the  traces  of  mud  may  be  more 
noticeable  than  ever. 

See  the  "  white  wing  "  at  work  in  the  picture  on  page  277.  Does 
any  blame  rest  on  you  if  your  street  is  not  clean? 

If  the  pavement  is  of  a  kind  that  will  stand  it,  the  water 
may  be  turned  on  the  street  from  the  fire  plugs  and  the  dirt 
thoroughly  washed  away.  Some  cities  clean  out  their  main 
business  streets  in  this  way  at  night  when  there  will  be  little 


Cluster  Lights  at  Night. 

interruption  from  wagons  or  automobiles.  By  some  means 
the  dust  must  be  kept  down  and  the  heavier  dirt  removed.  A 
preparation  of  oil  does  this  work  reasonably  well  on  a  dirt 
road,  but  on  other  kinds  of  streets  some  of  the  methods  we 
have  mentioned  must  be  used.  Each  community  must  do 
its  own  experimenting  and  find  what  suits  its  own  needs 
best. 

Northern  cities  have  in  winter  the  problem  of  removing 
the  snow  from  the  streets,  for  in  the  big  cities  it  does  not 
stay  long  enough  or  pack  down  sufficiently  hard  to  make 
the  use  of  sleighs  feasible  for  any  length  of  time.  Work  of 
this  kind  usually  comes  all  at  once,  and  in  many  places  the 
city  hires  extra  men  for  this  special  purpose,  rather  than 
use  the  regular  street  employees.  The  snow  may  be  dumped 


Street  Lighting 


47 


into  a  river  or  a  vacant  lot.    The  idea  seems  to  be,  "  Any- 
where to  get  it  off  the  streets." 

Does  it  make  any  difference  whether  the  snow  and  ice  are  cleaned 
off  the  sidewalk  in  front  of  your  house? 

30.  Street  Lighting.  —  Any  one  who  has  stumbled  along 
a  dark  or  dimly  lighted  street  at  night,  looking  for  the  num- 
ber of  a  house  which  he  wished  to  visit,  realizes  how  im- 


Brick  Pavement. 

This  is  fairly  smooth,  inexpensive,  and  safer   on   grades   than   asphalt. 
This  picture  shows  one  type  of  street  lamp.     See  also  page  297. 

portant  it  is  that  streets  should  be  well  lighted.  Attrac- 
tiveness in  appearance  at  night  is  another  motive,  for  there 
is  a  certain  glamour  about  a  "great  white  way  "  that  inter- 
ests people  in  a  community  which  tries  to  look  well  by  night 
as  well  as  by  day.  But  more  essential  than  either  of  these 
reasons  is  the  necessity  of  restraining  crime.  A  well  lighted 
community  has  much  less  law-breaking  than  one  that  tries 
to  economize  on  light.  Good  street  lights  are  worth  dozens 
of  policemen. 


48  The  Planning  of  the  Community 

It  is  a  long  look  from  the  old  whale  oil  or  kerosene  oil 
lamps  which  once  fitfully  gleamed  over  a  very  limited  area 
on  the  main  streets  of  our  cities  to  the  powerful  arc  lamps 
or  clusters  of  lights  which  illumine  the  highways  of  our 
best  cities  to-day.  Between  the  oil  lamp  and  the  electric 
light  came  the  gas  lamp,  and  this  is  still  in  use,  especially 
in  the  regions  where  natural  gas  is  abundant.  But  gen- 
erally some  form  of  electric  light  is  preferred.  Whether  it 
shall  be  the  arc  lamp  swung  from  a  pole,  a  single  globe  at 
the  top  of  a  post,  or  a  cluster  of  globes  in  some  attractive 
shape,  each  locality  must  settle  for  itself,  taking  into  account 
the  point  to  be  served  in  each  instance. 

If  beauty  is  a  special  object  to  be  sought,  some  form  of 
cluster  arrangement  is  likely  to  serve  best.  Whatever  plan 
is  used,  the  lights  must  not  be  placed  too  high  above  the 
street  or  walk  which  is  to  be  illumined.  Whether  the  city 
shall  maintain  its  own  electric  light  plant  or  purchase  the 
power  from  private  companies  is  another  question  which 
each  community  must  settle  for  itself. 

What  kind  of  lighting  does  your  community  have?  Is  the  light- 
ing plant  owned  by  the  town  or  by  a  private  company  ? 

31.  Franchises  and  Their  Evils.  —  A  franchise  is  a 
definite  grant  of  power  or  privilege  made  by  the  government 
to  a  private  individual  or  corporation.  Often  the  privilege 
of  voting  is  correctly  referred  to  by  this  name,  but  at  this 
time  we  are  not  using  the  word  in  that  sense.  If  a  city  gov- 
ernment does  not  provide  certain  necessary  things  for  its 
citizens  itself,  it  must  allow  private  citizens  or  companies 
to  do  this  work,  even  though  they  will  have  to  use  the  streets 
or  other  public  property.  The  formal  grant  of  the  right  to 
do  this  is  called  a  franchise. 

A  street  railway  company,  for  example,  gets  a  franchise 
permitting  it  to  lay  tracks  on  certain  streets  and  run  cars 
over  them,  and  a  telephone  company  gets  a  franchise  en- 
titling it  to  put  up  poles  and  string  wires  along  them. 


Franchises  and  Their  Evils 


49 


The  work  undertaken  under  franchises  like  this  has  so 
often  seemed  of  great  service  to  the  people  that  in  their 
joy  at  getting  the  thing  done  they  have  overlooked  the 
possibility  that  the  company  getting  the  franchise  might 
make  itself  the  master  instead  of  the  servant  of  the  people. 


Courtesy  of  Am.  Tel.  &  Tel.  Co. 

Broad  Street,  Philadelphia,  in  the  '80's. 
The  wires  spoiled  the  appearance  of  the  street  and  were  a  constant 
menace  to  traffic  and  to  pedestrians.    On  page  279  is  a  picture  of  the  same 
street  to-day.    Ten  times  as  many  wires  are  now  needed,  but  they  are 
underground  and  endanger  no  one. 

They  have  forgotten  that  since  the  company  could  not  make 
money  except  from  the  people  themselves,  the  people  had 
a  right  to  expect  a  reasonable  return  from  the  privileges 
which  they  gave  to  the  company. 

Franchises  have  been  granted  for  ridiculously  long  terms, 
such  as  99  or  even  999  years,  and  sometimes  without  a  cent 
of  recompense  coming  back  to  the  city.  Worse  than  all, 
these  franchises  have  sometimes  been  obtained  by  outright 
bribery  or  by  giving  a  city  councilman  stock  in  the  concern 


50 


The  Planning  of  the  Community 


which  was  to  receive  the  franchise.     Unless  the  company 
having  a  franchise  openly  violates  some  of  its  terms,  the  city 
must  sit  by  helplessly  and  put  up  with  poor  service,  real- 
izing too  late  that  it  has 
been  generous  to  its  own 
disadvantage. 

To  remedy  such  evils 
cities  are  to-day  seldom 
granting  franchises  for 
more  than  twenty-five 
years  and  are  insisting 
that  the  city  may  have 
the  right  to  buy  up  the 
business  itself  after  a 
certain  time  if  it  wishes, 
paying  the  company 
which  had  the  franchise 
a  reasonable  sum  for  its 
property  and  its  work. 
Either  a  share  in  the 
profits  or  some  other 
form  of  payment  is  often 
asked,  besides. 

Pipes  for  gas  or  water 
are  almost  invariably  put 
under  ground.  The  idea  of  putting  electric  wires  there  also 
is  becoming  popular.  Wires  strung  on  poles  may  ruin  the 
beauty  of  a  street,  besides  being  at  times  a  menace  to  life  and 
property.  Telegraph  and  telephone  companies,  too,  usually 
prefer  to  have  their  wires  underground,  if  the  change  can 
be  made  without  too  great  expense. 

Should  water,  gas,  or  light  companies  Be  allowed  to  tear  up  a 
street  any  time  they  wish? 

32.   Water  Transportation.  —  Seaports  and  lake  ports  and, 
to  some  degree,  cities  on  navigable  rivers,  have  problems 


Courtesy  of  Am.  Tel.  &  Tel.  Co. 

Laying  Ducts  for  Underground  Tele- 
phone Cable. 


Water  Transportation 


51 


that  do  not  bother  other  cities.  The  federal  government 
spends  millions  each  year  dredging  important  (and  sometimes 
unimportant)  rivers  and  harbors  to  keep  them  in  shape  for 
navigation,  and  cities  take  much  from  their  own  treasuries 
for  the  same  purpose.  Many  cities,  particularly  in  the 
West,  build  and  own 
one  or  more  municipal 
docks,  instead  of  allow- 
ing the  entire  water 
front  to  be  occupied  by 
private  companies. 

The  Erie  canal, 
stretching  across  New 
York  state  from  the 
Hudson  to  Lake  Erie, 
has  been  of  tremendous 
importance  to  the  cities 
whose  trade  has  been 
specially  affected  by  it. 
A  similar  waterway 
from  Pittsburgh  to  Lake 
Erie  would  doubtless 
add  marvelously  to  the 
already  world-famous 
iron  and  steel  center 
of  Pittsburgh.  Such  a 
canal  is  under  serious  consideration,  and  may  be  started  in 
a  few  years. 

Within  a  city  it  is  important  to  have  easy  communication 
between  the  docks  and  the  railroads,  so  that  freight  may  be 
readily  exchanged  between  them.  To  do  this  without  the 
very  objectionable  expedient  of  running  trains  on  the  streets 
of  the  city  is  no  simple  matter.  A  few  cities,  such  as  New 
Orleans  and  Philadelphia,  have  constructed  a  belt  line  rail- 
road, which  reaches  all  the  wharves  and  all  the  railroad 
freight  stations  and  furnishes  the  desired  communication. 


Locks  in  Canal  around  Rapids  in  the 
St.  Lawrence  River. 


52  The  Planning  of  the  Community 

Could  water  transportation  be  improved  anywhere  so  as  to  help 
your  community  in  any  way? 

33.  Bridges.  —  Communities  located  on  large  rivers 
meet  another  transportation  problem  in  their  bridges.  If 
the  river  is  navigable,  the  bridges  should  not  be  low  enough 
to  interfere  with  navigation.  A  city  may  sometimes  have  to 
choose  between  limiting  its  river  navigation  and  putting 
up  with  inconvenience  in  trade  and  communication  between 


"The  Point"  Bridges,  Pittsburgh. 
Two  rivers  meet  to  form  the  Ohio. 

the  two  banks  of  the  stream.  The  importance  of  New  York's 
great  bridges  to  Long  Island,  of  Pittsburgh's  to  its  South 
Side  and  North  Side,  and  of  St.  Louis's  across  the  Missis- 
sippi, we  are  not  likely  to  exaggerate.  Ferries  are  too  slow 
in  these  twentieth  century  days  if  we  can  have  anything  in 
their  place. 

When  great  bridges  were  constructed  years  ago,  they 
were  usually  built  by  private  companies,  and  toll  was  charged 
to  passengers,  whether  in  cars,  in  wagons,  or  on  foot.    But 


Services  of  the  Railroad 


53 


most  of  these  bridges  have  since  been  bought  up  by  city 
or  county  and  thrown  open  for  the  public  to  use  without 
charge. 

Pictures  of  old-fashioned  bridges  appear  on  pages  428  and 
452.  Construction  work  on  new  bridges  is  shown  on  pages 
12  and  292. 

34.  Services  of  the  Railroad.  —  Take  away  the  railroad, 
and  in  a  few  years  grass  would  grow  in  the  streets  of  our 


Dangerous  Grade  Crossing. 


finest  cities.  Millions  upon  millions  would  be  forced  to  go 
into  the  country  to  raise  food  crops  for  their  very  existence, 
and  those  who  remained  in  the  cities  would  be  too  poor  to 
keep  the  fine  streets  in  repair. 

The  railroad  brings  in  the  city's  food,  transports  the  city's 
manufactures  far  and  wide  to  exchange  for  the  products 
of  other  cities,  and  carries  thousands  of  people  morning  and 
night  from  their  homes  outside  the  business  center  to  store, 
office,  or  factory,  and  back  again.  Since  it  does  all  these 
and  many  other  things  for  a  city,  it  is  no  wonder  that  the 
railroad  was  allowed  when  it  was  first  constructed  to  take 


54  The  Planning  of  the  Community 

almost  any  land  it  needed  and  lay  its  tracks  there,  and  to 
run  its  trains  carrying  freight  or  passengers  right  through 
the  city's  own  streets. 

But  as  time  passed  and  communities  grew,  they  discov- 
ered that  the  railroad  brought  disagreeable  features  as  well 
as  conveniences.  Its  freight  yards  were  dirty  and  its  switch- 
ing engines  were  noisy.  Its  cars  sometimes  stood  for  long 
periods  at  a  street  crossing  while  exasperated  wagon  drivers 
or  foot-passengers  fretted  and  chafed.    The  lives  of  play- 


Switch  Yards. 


ing  children  and  careless  adults  were  suddenly  blotted  out 
by  other  trains  at  the  same  grade  crossings.  Spur  tracks 
from  the  main  line  to  factories  might  cross  a  street  almost 
anywhere  and  make  travel  rough  and  unpleasant.  Shrieking 
whistles  and  clanging  bells  broke  the  city's  quiet  and  robbed 
the  people  of  rest  day  and  night.  Clouds  of  greasy  black 
smoke  or  burning  cinders  poured  from  the  engines,  making 
everything  grimy  and  sometimes  setting  houses  on  fire. 

35.   Improvements  in  the  Railroad.  —  Yet  we  must  have 
the  railroad.    How  can  we  do  away  with  its  unpleasant 


Improvements  in  the  Railroad 


55 


features  and  still  retain  all  its  helpful  services?  Railroad 
officials  have  taken  up  this  problem  themselves,  and  the 
best  roads  are  now  doing  everything  possible  to  please  and 
serve  the  public,  finding  incidentally  that  such  a  policy 
often  turns  out  to  their  own  advantage  financially. 


Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company 
Broad  Street  Station.  Philadelphia. 
This  station  is  in  the  heart  of  the  city,  close  to  the  City  Hall.     It  is  the 
headquarters  of  the  great  Pennsylvania  Railroad  System. 

It  is  often  an  impossibility  to  run  the  road  in  such  a  place 
as  not  to  inconvenience  a  community  at  all,  on  account  of 
the  peculiar  formation  of  hills  and  valleys  in  the  vicinity. 
But  as  far  as  they  can,  most  railroads  are  trying  to  do  no 
more  harm  than  is  necessary  to  natural  scenery,  and  to  make 


A  Suburban  Station  Platform  and 
Tracks. 


56  The  Planning  of  the  Community 

their  stations  and  yards  beauty  spots  instead  of  eyesores. 
Through  freight  is  carried  around  a  great  city  instead  of  into 
it,  thereby  avoiding  much  congestion  in  the  local  yards. 

Sometimes  even  the  main 
freight  yards  are  kept 
wholly  outside  the 
crowded  portion  of  the 
city. 

Millions  of  dollars 
have  been  spent  to  raise 
or  lower  the  tracks  where 
the  dangerous  grade 
crossings  have  been. 
Sometimes,  as  in  New 
York,  the  trains  enter 
and  leave  the  main  part 
of  the  city  by  a  subway.  Smoke  consumers  on  the  engines 
save  money  for  the  railroad  and  help  people  to  keep  clean. 
For  several  years  the  New  York  Central  and  New  York,  New 
Haven,  and  Hartford  lines  have  used  electric  engines  for  sev- 
eral miles  outside  of  New 
York,  and  these  roads 
and  others  have  seriously 
considered  the  use  of  elec- 
tric power  extensively, 
even  outside  the  large 
cities  and  their  suburbs. 
But  many  of  these 
improvements  cost  more 
than  the  railroad  gets 
in  return,  and  the  people 
must  expect  to  help  pay 

for  these  changes  and  the  constantly  rising  wages  of  rail- 
road employees  in  higher  fares  and  freight  charges. 

What  improvements  have  been  or  might  be  made  in  the  railroads 
in  which  your  community  is  interested? 


A  Grade  Crossing  Abolished. 


Street  Railways 


57 


36.  Street  Railways.  —  It  is  physically  impossible  for 
the  steam  road  to  serve  directly  any  wide  area  beyond  its 
own  lines,  as  far  as  local  transportation  is  concerned.  Be- 
sides, if  its  trains  are  to  make  good  time,  they  cannot  stop 
at  enough  places  to  suit  the  convenience  of  a  great  many. 

Local  street  railway  lines  are  therefore  a  necessity. 
Their  development  has  been  surprising.  It  is  now  possible 
for  even  a  low-paid  workman  to  live  out  of  the  crowded  dis- 


Block  Stone  Pavement. 


trict  in  reasonably  comfortable  and  healthful  surroundings. 
The  street  railway  can  touch  every  section  of  a  great  city 
and  make  communication  between  all  its  parts  easy  and 
relatively  quick.  Some  suburban  lines  run  heavy  cars  that 
make  almost  the  speed  of  the  steam  road. 

Interurban  lines  between  one  city  and  another  have  been 
rapidly  constructed,  too.  Not  only  do  they  serve  the 
cities  which  they  connect,  but  they  contribute  greatly  to 
the  comfort  and  convenience  of  the  farming  country  between. 
Such  lines  usually  carry  both  passengers  and  freight. 


58  The  Planning  of  the  Community 

The  social  value  of  the  street  railway  in  the  city  and  the 
suburban  or  interurban  lines  in  enabling  people  to  live  in 
comfort  in  the  open  district  amid  conditions  favorable  to 
health  and  happiness  is  seldom  given  the  credit  it  deserves. 

The  early  street  cars  make  us  laugh  when  a  relic  of  that 
early  means  of  transportation  is  put  on  exhibition  before  us. 
They  were  small,  cheap  affairs  drawn  by  horses.    After  a 


1 

X                                   jM 

MPri 

B£?'?  M  JsrSi  Ir  ■ 

"  -•  ^^BH 

Etipqp 

rttp*l--'~-  ■■'  ^^S^Bk 

Willi  | 

■    ■ 

Old  Style  Horse  and  Cable  Cars. 
This  is  a  copy  of  a  picture  from  about  1 890. 


time  cable  lines  were  constructed.  The  cable  was  under- 
ground, kept  constantly  in  motion  by  powerful  engines,  and 
the  cars  had  an  appliance  for  gripping  or  releasing  the 
cable  when  it  was  desired  to  move  or  stop.  A  city  with  steep 
hills  like  San  Francisco  found  the  cable  a  great  benefit. 
In  fact  cable  lines  are  still  in  use  there  and  elsewhere  on 
very  steep  grades. 

But  about  1886  electricity  began  to  be  tried  as  a  motive 
power  for  street  railways.    The  greater  speed  that  was 


Street  Railways 


59 


possible  and  the  other  evident  advantages  of  electric  power 
caused  a  rapid  substitution  of  electric  for  cable  or  horse 
power  wherever  it  was  possible,  and  now  most  lines  use 
electric  power. 

The  constantly  growing  traffic  and  the  great  number  of 
wagons  and  automobiles  using  the  streets  of  a  city  make  street 


Traffic  on  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York 

Notice  the  mounted  policeman  and  the  traffic  man  with  his  sign  to  direct 
the  movement  of  traffic.  Imagine  the  confusion  if  street  cars  went  up  and 
down  the  Avenue  as  well  as  across  it.  One  of  the  Fifth  Avenue  "  busses  " 
appears  in  the  picture. 


car  progress  slow  in  the  business  districts,  especially  if 
the  streets  are  narrow.  As  it  is  plain  that  surface  fines 
alone  cannot  give  satisfactory  service,  several  large  cities  have 
constructed  subway  or  elevated  lines.  London  and  Paris 
in  Europe  have  famous  subway  systems. 

Boston  was  the  first  city  in  this  country  to  construct  a 
subway,  which  is  operated  as  a  part  of  a  combined  system 


60  The  Planning  of  the  Community 

of  surface,  subway,  and  elevated  lines.  Philadelphia  also 
has  a  system  constructed  on  the  same  principle.  New  York 
has  extensive  lines  of  both  subways  and  elevated  road,  but 
they  are  operated  separately.  Chicago  has  an  elevated 
system  and  is  planning  for  a  subway  also. 

Surface  and  underground  conditions  vary  so  much  from 
city  to  city  that  a  system  which  might  be  feasible  in  one  place 
would  be  utterly  out  of  the  question  in  another.  The  many 
communities  which  have  thought  about  constructing  an 
elevated  or  subway  line  ought  to  consider  all  local  conditions 
very  carefully,  for  the  undertaking  is  expensive,  and  a  mis- 
take likely  to  be  ruinous. 

What  would  you  think  of  an  ordinance  forbidding  wagons  to  be 
driven  on  street  car  tracks? 

37.  Quality  of  Street  Car  Service.  —  The  quality  of  serv- 
ice afforded  by  street  railway  lines  varies  greatly.  The 
city  of  Cleveland,  due  chiefly  to  the  efforts  of  former  Mayor 
"Tom"  Johnson,  for  a  time  enjoyed  a  three-cent  fare, 
and  the  lines  still  charge  less  than  in  many  places.  Los 
Angeles  has  excellent  service  in  the  city,  and  the  interurban 
lines  of  the  Pacific  Electric  Company  running  in  all  direc- 
tions outside  the  city  are  in  many  respects  the  best  inter- 
urban system  in  the  world.  Chicago  after  much  discussion 
and  disagreement  has  adopted  a  plan  by  which  the  city  is 
to  get  a  portion  of  the  street  car  company's  profits  if  they  go 
beyond  a  certain  per  cent,  and  has  the  right  to  buy  the  fines 
after  25  years. 

Some  companies  have  more  to  contend  with  than  others 
in  the  way  of  grades,  curves,  narrow  streets,  and  similar 
difficulties.  Sometimes  when  a  company  tries  to  do  its 
best  for  the  people  to-day  it  is  handicapped  by  past  crooked- 
ness of  management.  A  very  serious  and  common  evil 
has  been  the  issuing  of  "  watered  "  stock  —  that  is,  stock 
that  does  not  represent  actual  money  invested  in  the  business. 
When  a  company  tries  to  pay  interest  on  a  great  deal  of 


The  Smoke  Nuisance  61 

watered  stock  and  keep  its  service  up  to  date  in  addition, 
the  task  is  not  easy. 

The  people  are  constantly  demanding  smoother,  more  sub- 
stantial tracks,  and  more  and  better  cars.  A  single  modern 
car  costs  over  $6000.    Ownership  of  street  railway  lines 


A  Modern  Low  Floor  Car. 
See  the  double-decker  on  page  274. 

by  the  city  is  favored  by  many  people.  San  Francisco 
actually  has  a  municipal  line  in  addition  to  the  lines  of  a 
private  company. 

Do  you  think  automobiles  have  a  noticeable  effect  on  city  life? 
Is  the  slogan,  "No  seat,  no  fare,"  a  sensible  one?  Are  "jitney 
busses"  a  nuisance  or  a  blessing? 

38.  The  Smoke  Nuisance.  —  Proper  planning  of  a  com- 
munity will  take  into  account  how  to  keep  it  looking  at- 
tractive as  well  as  how  to  get  around  in  it  or  how  to  get 
more  business.  It  once  was  the  fashion  to  argue  that 
smoke  means  business  and  business  means  prosperity.  Pitts- 
burgh once  took  a  kind  of  pride  in  its  nickname  of  "  the 
Smoky  City,"  for  the  smoke  seemed  to  symbolize  the- city's 
industrial  greatness.  But  Pittsburgh  has  learned  better. 
It  has  heroically  tried  to  remove  this  mark  of  waste  and 
carelessness,  with  excellent  results. 


62 


The  Planning  of  the  Community 


That  smoke  from  soft  coal  is  itself  dangerous  to  health 
has  not  been  positively  proved.  But  anything  that  helps 
to  keep  a  city  dirty  arid  shut  out  the  sunlight  cannot  pro- 


^mm00^J 


Before  Smoke  Regulation  Was  in  Vogue. 
The  same  view  appears  on  the  next  page.     Do  you  wonder  this  was  called 
the  "Smoky  City"? 

mote  good  health.  The  disastrous  effect  on  the  appearance 
of  a  community  produced  by  unnecessary  smoke  needs  no 
explanation.  This  dirtiness  causes  an  unnecessary  expense 
of  thousands  of  dollars  every  month  in  a  vain  attempt  to 
keep  clean.     The  injury  to  plants  and  other  growing  things 


The  Smoke  Nuisance 


63 


and  to  property  of  any  kind  that  is  exposed  counts  up  to 
millions  more  in  a  short  time. 

It  is  easier  to  say  this  evil  should  be  reduced  than  it  is  to 
reduce  it.  Sometimes  it  is  possible  to  substitute  hard  coal, 
coke,  or  oil  for  the  soft  coal  commonly  used,  but  only  a  few 
localities  can  avoid  the  difficulty  in  this  way.  The  use  of 
smoke   consumers,   improved   furnaces,   and   more   careful 


Pittsburgh  after  a  Season  of  Smoke  Regulation. 
For  the  change  in  a  single  factory,  look  on  page  344. 

methods  of  feeding  coal  to  the  furnaces  causes  much  of  the 
carbon  to  be  consumed  which  otherwise  would  pass  off  in 
black  smoke. 

It  is  usually  easy  to  induce  a  factory  manager  to  use 
improved  methods  when  he  discovers  that  the  change  is 
going  to  be  an  actual  money  gain  to  his  own  business.  Those 
who  are  stubborn  and  will  not  be  convinced  can  be  brought 
to  terms  by  a  few  prosecutions.    It  therefore  rests  largely 


64  The  Planning  of  the  Community 

with  each  community  whether  it  will  be  grimy  and  ugly, 
looking  or  reasonably  clean. 

39.  Trees  and  Parkways.  —  There  are  few  more  beautiful 
sights  in  a  community  than  a  street  lined  with  rows  of  well- 
shaped,  stately  maples,  oaks,  or  elms,  with  sufficient  park- 
ways, or  grassy  spaces  to  give  the  trees  plenty  of  room  and 
add  their  touch  of  green  to  a  handsome  highway.  It  takes 
years  for  such  a  street  to  reach  its  full  glory,  but  it  is  well 
worth  all  the  time  and  labor  that  it  costs.     Trees  make  the 


New  England  Elms  and  Maples. 

heat  of  summer  more  endurable  and  they  purify  the  air, 
thus  promoting  the  health  of  the  people. 

All  trees  are  not  equally  desirable.  The  palm  trees  that 
help  to  make  Los  Angeles  and  Redlands  and  Riverside  and 
some  of  the  noble  avenues  of  New  Orleans  so  wonderfully 
attractive  could  not  live  much  farther  north.  The  elms 
and  maples  of  New*  England  do  not  do  nearly  so  well  in 
some  other  sections.  But  there  are  several  varieties  of  these 
trees  and  of  oaks  which  may  each  find  a  particular  spot 
where  it  will  show  to  specially  good  advantage.  Some  for- 
esters recommend  the  oriental  plane  tree,  though  its  time 


Trees  and  Parkways 


65 


of  leafage  is  not  so  long  as  that  of  some  others.  The  poplar 
or  cottonwood  finds  friends  when  a  rapidly  growing  tree  is 
wanted,  but  it  speedily  loses  them  when  its  roots  cause 
cement  or  concrete  walks  to  crack  and  even  find  their  way 
down  into  sewer  pipes. 

It  seems  to  be  best  to  put  the  matter  of  planting  and  caring 
for  street  trees  in  the  hands  of  the  local  government  rather 
than  to  leave  it  for  each  householder.     In  this  way  uniform- 


A  Scene  in  Los  Angeles. 

Palm  and  eucalyptus  trees  are  in  sight.     For  some  other  kinds  of  trees, 
see  pages  265,  420,  and  453. 

ity  of  appearance  in  a  street  can  be  most  surely  obtained  and 
much  more  intelligent  care  will  be  afforded.  Keeping  trees 
free  from  insects  and  other  pests  sometimes  becomes  a 
vexing  problem,  and  this  may  be  wholly  neglected  if  left  to 
private  owners.  It  is  not  safe,  either,  to  allow  every  house- 
holder, telephone  lineman,  or  any  other  thoughtless  person 
under  the  pretense  of  trimming  a  tree,  to  hack  it  until  its 
beauty  is  gone. 

Can  you  tell  one  tree  from  another?  Point  out  some  differences 
in  leaf  structure  or  manner  of  growth.  What  kinds  of  trees  would 
you  recommend  for  your  community  ? 


66  The  Planning  of  the  Community 

40.  Unsightly  Places.  —  Almost  every  community  has 
some  place  which  it  prefers  that  the  visitor  should  not  see. 
It  may  be  a  dump  where  tin  cans,  papers,  old  shoes,  and 
worse-smelling  things  are  heedlessly  thrown.  It  may  be 
a  mosquito-breeding  swamp  or  mudhole.  It  may  be  a 
filthy  alley,  unpaved,  dark,  strewn  with  bottles,  garbage, 
and  slime. 

Of  course  there  is  no  sound  reason  why  any  place  of  this 
kind  should  exist ;  but  because  some  people  are  lazy,  some  are 


Lemon  Alley. 
This  is  its  real  name.     It  might  be  in  any  of  several  cities. 

willfully  defiant  of  decency,  and  some  officers  do  not  dare 
to  enforce  ordinances  which  prohibit  these  eyesores,  they 
are  all  too  common.  To  arouse  a  public  sentiment  which 
will  protest  vigorously  against  any  toleration  of  such  disre- 
gard of  civic  beauty  and  health  is  a  work  in  which  every 
child  in  school  can  have  a  part. 

It  is  less  easy  to  induce  a  bill-poster  or  advertising  manager 
to  refrain  from  destroying  a  beautiful  landscape  or  offending 
one's  sense  of  art  by  putting  up  gaudy  billboards.    The 


Unsightly  Places 


67 


manager  wants  to  increase  his  business  and  thinks  this 
is  the  easiest  way  to  reach  the  people.  The  billboard  man 
even  declares  that  his  signs  add  to  the  appearance  of  a  street. 
Perhaps  it  would  be  too  much  to  insist  that  all  advertising 
should  be  removed  from  the  streets.  But  advertisements 
can  at  least  be  displayed  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  violate 
every  sense  of  natural  beauty  and  appropriateness.  Why 
should  a  person,  on  coming  out  of  a  great  library  or  church, 


A  Common  Sight. 


be  confronted  with  the  blazing  query,  "  Eventually.  Why 
not  now?  "  or  be  informed  that  somebody's  beer  or  cigarettes 
are  popular  favorites? 

The  billboard  man  and  the  owner  of  a  house  or  vacant  lot 
who  allow  their  property  to  be  used  for  such  an  objectionable 
purpose  are  equally  guilty.  A  tax  on  billboards  would  prob- 
ably reduce  the  number  of  them,  and  might  be  a  step  toward 
the  removal  of  the  most  offensive.  But  after  all,  if  the  public 
would  only  refuse  to  patronize  the  advertiser  who  employs 
such  undesirable  means  of  reaching  them  instead  of  yielding 
to  the  suggestions  inspired  by  his  glaring  advertisements, 
we  could  hit  the  evil  more  surely  than  in  any  other  way.     And 


68  The  Planning  of  the  Community 

city  ordinances  which  are  enforced  can  punish  with  heavy 
fines  those  who  use  the  space  behind  the  billboard  to  dump 
refuse  and  rubbish  to  menace  the  health  of  the  community. 

What  places  in  your  community  do  you  try  to  show  to  visitors  ? 
What  places  do  you  steer  them  away  from  ? 


Back  of  the  Same  Billboards. 
Often  the  rubbish  is  much  more  objectionable  than  this. 

41.  Unnecessary  Noise.  —  Just  here  we  may  mention 
very  briefly  another  matter  which  many  people  probably 
think  of  as  a  necessary  feature  of  city  life  —  its  noises. 
Heavy  trucks  rumbling  over  the  streets  and  shaking  the 
houses  as  they  pass,  flat  wheels  on  street-cars  and  broken 
or  uneven  tracks,  the  ear-grating  horns,  whistles,  and  other 
noise-makers  on  automobiles  and  motorcycles,  are  but  a 
few  examples  of  noises  which  could  either  be  prevented 
entirely  or  made  much  less  disagreeable. 

It  goes  without  saying  that  the  region  around  a  hospital 
ought  to  be  quiet  and  almost  as  necessarily  the  region  around 
a  school.  But  how  many  of  either  of  these  institutions  in  a 
city  enjoy  the  quiet  which  they  ought  to  have?  Some 
European  cities  have  strict  ordinances  covering  this  point, 


Questions  69 

but  in  America  we  are  too  apt  to  insist  upon  a  person's 
right  to  make  all  the  noise  he  wants  to  as  if  it  were  guaranteed 
him  in  the  constitution.  Baltimore  has  given  some  special 
attention  to  this  phase  of  city  attractiveness.  No  doubt 
other  cities  will  do  the  same  when  they  realize  how  much 
pleasanter,  less  tiresome,  more  homelike  a  city  would  be  if 
it  were  rid  of  its  unnecessary  noises. 

Are  church  bells  a  form  of  unnecessary  noise?  Are  automobile 
horns? 

In  many  communities  a  survey,  which  is  a  definite,  thorough 
study  of  living  conditions,  industries,  intellectual  opportuni- 
ties, and  practically  every  other  important  phase  of  com- 
munity life,  has  been  undertaken.  If  this  has  been  done  in 
your  community,  make  use  of  its  reports  and  see  whether 
they  have  done  any  good.  Possibly  your  class  can  make 
some  studies  which,  without  being  too  ambitious,  can  be  of 
real  service  to  your  community. 

QUESTIONS 

What  are  three  objects  to  be  attained  in  laying  out  a  city? 
What  benefits  are  derived  from"  thoughtful  planning  in  each  of  these 
respects  ? 

Give  examples  of  American  cities  that  were  planned  and  of  cities 
that  were  not.     Explain  the  plan  of  the  city  of  Washington. 

What  are  some  of  the  difficulties  that  communities  have  to  con- 
tend with  in  respect  to  proper  planning?  Is  there  any  excuse  for 
lack  of  good  planning  in  such  a  city  as  Pittsburgh?  Does  the  plan 
of  McConnelsville  impress  you  as  well-arranged  ?  Compare  both  of 
these  places  with  your  own  community  and  with  any  others  that 
you  know. 

What  is  a  civic  center?     Is  the  idea  a  good  one? 

What  is  meant  by  zoning  a  city?  How  do  you  like  the  plan? 
Do  you  have  it  ? 

What  chance  is  there  for  a  community  to  improve  its  arrangement 
after  it  has  grown  large?  Mention  improvements  that  some  cities 
have  made.  Does  the  plan  of  your  community  need  correction? 
If  it  does,  can  it  be  made? 

Who  has  the  responsibility  for  constructing  new  streets?    Who 


70  The  Planning  of  the  Community 

stands  the  cost?  Describe  a  pleasing  residential  street.  What 
features  should  characterize  a  main  business  street  and  why? 

Mention  the  principal  kinds  of  materials  used  for  paving  streets 
and  explain  the  uses  for  which  each  is  best  suited.  What  kinds  do 
you  have  ?     Describe  the  foundation  laid  for  paved  streets. 

What  is  the  importance  of  street  cleaning  ?  By  what  methods  is 
it  done  ?  What  does  your  community  do  in  this  line  ?  Does  the 
snow  problem  affect  your  community?     If  so,  how  is  it  handled? 

Why  is  a  good  street  lighting  system  necessary?  Describe 
some  of  the  most  common  kinds  of  lamps  now  in  use.  What  does 
your  community  have  ?     What  kind  do  you  like  best  ? 

Define  franchise.  Mention  some  of  the  evils  that  have  attended 
the  granting  of  franchises,  explaining  the  reasons  for  them.  What 
remedies  can  you  suggest? 

What  facilities  do  governments  have  to  provide  in  order  to  en- 
courage transportation  by  water?  Discuss  the  problem  of  exchange 
of  freight  between  docks  and  railroads. 

Explain  the  importance  of  bridges  to  a  community.  Are  toll 
bridges  desirable? 

Explain  the  importance  of  the  railroad  to  a  community.  What 
disagreeable  features  does  it  possess?  How  can  the  unpleasant 
conditions  be  remedied? 

Show  the  necessity  of  street  railways  to  a  large  community. 
Of  what  special  services  are  the  interurban  lines  ?  What  kinds  of 
power  have  been  used  on  street  railway  lines  ?  What  are  the  ad- 
vantages of  each?  What  are  the  reasons  for  the  construction  of 
subways  and  elevated  roads?  What  communities  have  them? 
Why  does  the  quality  of  service  on  street  railways  vary  between 
cities  ?  What  special  difficulties  do  some  companies  have  to  contend 
with?  What  examples  of  good  and  bad  street  car  service  are  you 
f  amiliar  with  ? 

Should  a  city  take  pride  in  being  known  as  "the  Smoky  City"? 
Is  your  community  troubled  that  way  ?  How  can  we  remedy  the 
smoke  evil? 

Are  billboards  of  any  value  to  a  community?  Why  do  ugly 
looking  places  exist  in  many  decent  communities?  If  your  commu- 
nity has  them,  is  there  anything  you  can  do  to  get  rid  of  them  ? 

Is  noise  a  necessary  feature  of  city  life  ?  What  are  some  noises 
which  could  be  either  removed  or  reduced?    How? 


Special  Topics  71 


SPECIAL  TOPICS. 

A  Plan  of  Our  Community.  (Every  pupil  should  prepare  one, 
making  it  as  complete  as  possible.) 

A  Plan  of  an  Ideal  Community. 

Plans  of  Other  Communities  than  Our  Own. 

Streets  and  Their  Care  in  Our  Community. 

What  the  Railroad  Means  to . 

The  Erie  Canal. 

Our  Street  Railways. 

A  Plan  for  Improving  the  Transportation  System  of . 

Pipes  and  Wires  in  the  Streets. 

The  Commerce  of  the  Cities.  (See  McPherson,  "Railroad  Freight 
Rates.") 

Interesting  studies  of  several  important  communities  in  Hunger- 
ford's  "Personality  of  American  Cities." 

The  Location  of  the  Railroad  in  the  City. 

Making a  "City  Beautiful." 

Getting  Rid  of  the  Smoke. 

Electric  Power  on  the  Great  Railroads. 

The  Bridges  of  New  York. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  HEALTH  OF  THE  COMMUNITY 


The  last  century  has  been  one  of  human  achievement;  the  pres- 
ent century  promises  to  be  one  of  human  improvement. 

—Aronovici. 

42.  Death  Rates.  —  It  is  not  so  many  years  since  people 
simply  waited  in  terror,  nervous  and  hopeless,  when  an  epi- 
demic came  upon  a  community.  They  looked  on  it  as  a 
mysterious  working  of  Providence,  to  which  they  must  sub- 
mit without  complaint,  though  they  could  not  understand 
it.  To-day  we  feel  that  an  epidemic  may  indeed  be  the  act 
of  Providence,  but  we  believe  that  the  thing  to  do  is  to  dis- 
cover what  law  of  health  some  one  has  violated  and  thereby 
has  become  responsible  for  the  plague. 

So  successful  have  physicians  and  scientists  become  that 
the  death  rate  for  each  thousand  people  has  actually  been 
J  reduced  more  than  one  half  in  less  than  fifty  years,  in  most 
civilized  countries.  They  have  discovered  that  filthy  drink- 
Zing  water  is  largely  to  blame  for  typhoid  fever,  that  a  kind 
»t)f  mosquito  was  the  villain  who  carried  yellow  fever,  that 
diphtheria  and  tuberculosis  are  neither  of  them  so  likely  to 
be  fatal  as  was  once  thought,  if  properly  treated.  The 
average  length  of  life  has  been  raised  already  several 
years. 

The  United  States  is  still  considerably  below  the  best  in 
this  respect.  The  proportion  of  foreigners  and  colored 
people  who  know  nothing  about  the  laws  of  health  is  partly 
responsible  for  this  fact,  coupled  with  a  similar  ignorance  in 

72 


Control  of  Disease  73 

the  country  districts  among  white  Americans.    The  states 
of  the  Australian  Federation  and  New  Zealand  show  about  the 
lowest  death  rates  in  the  world.    In  this  country  Seattle  has^- 
the  best  record  among  the  large  cities  and  New  Orleans  and— 
Memphis  the  worst.    The  poor  showing  of  the  latter  cities 
is  partly  due  to  the  large  colored  population. 

43.  Control  of  Disease.  —  The  problem  of  checking  and 
controlling  disease  is  largely  left  to  the  health  authorities 
of  cities  and  other  local  governments.  Each  community 
knows  its  own  needs  best  in  such  a  matter,  though  for  the 
sake  of  protecting  all  its  people  the  state  ought  to  have 
power  to  direct  the  local  community  to  do  or  not  to  do 
things  that  would  vitally  affect  the  well-being  of  the  rest 
of  the  state.  Almost  all  the  states  have  a  State  Board  of 
Health  with  about  that  kind  of  superior  authority. 

When  a  physician  discovers  a  case  of  contagious  or  in- 
fectious disease,  it  is  his  duty  to  report  the  case  at  once  to  ta" 
the  local  board  of  health  or  health  officer,  and  have  a  quaran-*- 
tine  established  over  that  house.     If  the  disease  is  serious, 
no  one  except  the  doctor  and  nurse  may  see  the  patient  for 
a  period  of  several  weeks,  and  other  persons  must  keep 
away  from  the  house.     Any  who  are  known  to  have  been 
exposed  to  the  disease  may  also  be  quarantined  until  it 
is  known  whether  they  are  to  have  it  themselves.     The 
health  officers  also  notify  the  school  authorities  or  other 
public  organizations  which  might  be  concerned  with  any 
case,  expecting  them  to  assist  in  maintaining  the  quaran- 
tine.    When  a  severe  epidemic  is  threatened,  the  schools,^ 
churches,  "movie-houses,"  and  the  like  may  be  closed  for 
a  time. 

The  house  where  a  serious  contagious  disease  has  occurred 
is  generally  fumigated  before  the  quarantine  card  is  removed 
and  the  occupants  allowed  to  resume  their  former  relations 
with  other  people.  Large  cities  usually  maintain  public 
hospitals  where  those  needing  special  attention  or  nursing 
may  be  taken.    In  some  states  private  hospitals  which 


74  The  Health  of  the  Community 

maintain  free  wards  are  assisted  by  appropriations  from 
public  funds. 

If  you  were  very  sick,  would  you  rather  be  in  a  hospital  or  at 
home?    Why? 

44.  Prevention  of  Disease.  —  Far  better  than  to  cure  a 
disease  is  to  prevent  it.  Clean  streets,  pure  water,  a  suffi- 
cient sewer  system,  the  removal  of  garbage  and  rubbish,  all 
may  be  provided  by  the  local  government  to  promote  the 
health  of  the  people  as  well  as  to  improve  the  appearance  of 
the  community.  Common  drinking  cups  and  common 
towels  in  public  places,  which  have  often  been  carriers  of 
disease,  are  now  generally  forbidden  by  law.  Ordinances 
against  spitting  on  sidewalks,  in  street  cars,  and  in  public  halls, 
are  common,  but  unfortunately  are  often  not  enforced. 

Do  you  believe  that  the  law  should  compel  every  one  to  be 
vaccinated? 

In  putting  up  schoolhouses,  tenements,  theaters,  and  pub- 
lic buildings  of  all  kinds  it  is  now  the  custom  for  laws  to  re- 
quire that  a  certain  number  of  cubic  feet  of  air  space  shall 
be  allowed  for  each  person  in  the  place,  and  that  sufficient 
means  of  ventilation  shall  be  provided.  Laws  of  this  kind, 
if  enforced,  contribute  greatly  toward  keeping  people  in  good 
health  and  preventing  disease. 

Drainage  and  plumbing  systems  in  private  houses  should 
be  approved  by  plumbing  inspectors  or  other  health  officers, 
so  as  to  make  sure  that  they  comply  with  sound  principles 
of  sanitation. 

Is  the  ventilation  good  in  your  home  and  school  and  the  public 
places  of  your  community?  If  not,  can  you  do  anything  about  it? 
Can  a  person  control  his  own  health  ? 

45.  Food  Inspection.  —  Very  important,  too,  in  keeping 
up  the  health  of  the  people  is  the  quality  of  the  food  they 
eat.  Nation,  state,  and  city  cooperate  in  this  matter. 
Congress  passed  in  1906  the  so-called  pure  food  law  which 
aims  to  prevent  the  selling  of  food  products,  drugs,  and  medi- 


Prevention  of  Disease 


75 


Sewers  under  Construction. 


76 


The  Health  of  the  Community 


cines  under  misleading  labels,  and  the  use  of  poisonous  or 
otherwise  harmful  ingredients  in  any  food  or  drug.  This 
law  is  enforced  chiefly  through  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry  in 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  (§117).  If  the  Bureau  dis- 
covers that  any  dealer  is  violating  the  law,  it  informs  the  De- 
partment of  Justice,  so  that  the  offender  may  be  prosecuted. 


A   Stockyard  Scene. 
A  prospective  purchaser  is  trying  to  learn  the  condition  of  the  sheep. 


But  the  national  government,  we  must  remember,  can 
deal  only  with  those  articles  that  are  transported  in  inter- 
state commerce.  Within  the  field  thus  limited  it  has  ac- 
complished a  great  deal.  Under  the  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry  in  the  Department  of  Agriculture  the  inspection  of 
meats  at  the  great  stockyards  and  slaughterhouses  in  Chicago, 
Kansas  City,  and  other  places  is  conducted. 

Practically  every  state  has  an  official  or  board  with  au- 
thority to  inspect  food  products  and  see  that  food  dealers 


Food  Inspection  77 

comply  with  the  laws.  Selling  aged  eggs  or  other  cold 
storage  commodities  as  if  they  were  fresh;  offering  oleo- 
margarine for  sale  as  butter,  or  renovated  butter  or  filled 
cheese  as  if  it  were  the  regular,  fresh  article ;  putting  on  the 
market  diseased  meat  or  flesh  from  an  animal  that  was  not 
killed ;  or  trying  to  sell  decayed  meat,  fruit,  or  vegetables ; 
—  these  are  all  contrary  to  law  in  most  states,  and  state 
officers  are  chiefly  responsible  for  the  detection  and  punish- 


Well-kept  Grocery. 

Everything  is  in  order.     No  goods  are  exposed  to  flies  or  dirt.     For  the 

opposite  kind  of  conditions  see  page  119. 

ment  of  offenders.  In  some  states  this  work  is  done  through 
the  state  department  of  health,  in  others  through  their  de- 
partment of  agriculture. 

The  larger  cities  have  their  local  ordinances  covering 
somewhat  the  same  ground.  Some  matters  can  be  better 
handled  by  local  officials  than  by  those  of  the  state  or  federal 
government.  The  inspection  of  milk  to  see  whether  it  has 
been  watered  or  for  some  other  reason  does  not  contain  the 
legal  amount  of  fats  or  solids,  is  usually  done  by  local  officers. 
They  also  inspect  bakeries,  dairies,  and  factories  making 
food  products  to  see  whether  they  are  kept  clean.    Dis- 


78 


The  Health  of  the  Community 


honest  weights,  scales,  measures,  and  the  like  are  confiscated 
and  the  user  of  them  fined  if  he  has  used  them  knowingly. 

If  you  discovered  that  a  milkman  or  grocer  was  selling  a  dirty, 
impure,  or  low-grade  article,  what  would  be  the  proper  thing  to 
do  about  it? 


46.  Water  Supply.  —  For  countless  industrial  uses,  to 
keep  clean,  indeed  to  keep  alive,  man  must  have  water. 
Where  shall  he  get  it?     In  the  country  or  the  small  town 


Reservoir  Constituting  a  Part 

Water  is  pumped  from  a  river  to  a  filtration  plant  and  then  into  this 

two  other  reservoirs  of 

wells  and  springs  will  probably  furnish  enough,  but  when  a 
city  contains  thousands  of  people,  no  such  supply  is  avail- 
able, in  most  cases.  Lakes  and  rivers  have  to  be  drawn 
upon,  sometimes  miles  and  miles  away. 

In  a  small  city  a  private  water  company  may  be  able  to 
provide  what  the  community  needs,  but  as  the  city  grows 
the  undertaking  becomes  more  and  more  difficult,  so  that 
the  people  usually  prefer  that  their  local  government  shall 
operate  their  water  system.  Besides,  when  this  is  done,  the 
quality  of  service  and  the  purity  of  the  water  can  be  much 


Purification  of  Water  79 

more  strictly  guarded.    Three  fourths  of  the  larger  towns 
and  cities  control  their  water  supply. 

Chicago  takes  its  water  from  Lake  Michigan ;  Pittsburgh 
chiefly  from  the  Allegheny  River.  Seattle  annexed  an  entire 
fresh  water  lake.  New  York  has  constructed  an  enormous 
reservoir  in  the  Catskill  mountains,  from  which  a  great 
tunnel  goes  under  the  Hudson  river  and  on  to  the  city,  carry- 
ing water  for  its  people.  Los  Angeles  has  gone  nearly  250 
miles  into  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains,   built  reservoirs, 


of  a  Great  City  Water  System. 

reservoir.    This  holds  about  125,000,000  gallons.    The  city  also  has 
about  equal  dimensions. 

and  taken  what  it  needs  from  a  pure  mountain  river.  Part 
of  the  way  to  the  city  the  water  passes  through  an  enormous 
iron  pipe  which  works  on  the  principle  of  a  siphon,  and  part 
of  the  way  it  is  an  open  aqueduct.  Even  after  all  these 
stupendous  engineering  feats,  people  are  not  sure  that  either 
of  these  last  two  cities  has  procured  a  supply  that  will  be 
sufficient  for  more  than  half  a  century. 

47.  Purification  of  Water.  —  Although  only  a  small  part 
of  the  entire  water  supply  is  used  for  drinking  purposes,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  whole  shall  be  usable  in  that  way.    Cities 


80  The  Health  of  the  Community 

cannot  afford  to  have  two  systems,  one  for  drinking  water 
and  one  for  industrial  uses.  No  greater  danger  to  public 
health  exists  than  impure  drinking  water. 

If  the  supply  is  taken  from  a  river  or  lake  into  which  all 
kinds  of  refuse  may  be  poured  or  thrown,  some  way  must 
be  found  to  purify  the  water.  Rivers  will  purify  them- 
selves after  traveling  a  few  miles,  but  when  towns  are  built 
as  close  together  as  we  find  them  in  these  days  the  river 
may  not  have  time  to  do  this  between  one  town  and  the  next. 
Some  cities  have  constructed  great  filtration  plants.    Water 


Settling  Basins  at  a  Filtration  Plant. 

is  pumped  from  a  river  or  lake  and  made  to  filter  through 
vast  beds  of  sand,  which  remove  the  impurities.  Chlorine 
or  some  other  chemical  is  sometimes  used,  too,  in  some  part 
of  the  process  of  purification. 

Pittsburgh  has  done  wonders  for  its  people  through  its 
filtration  system.  There  was  a  time  when  one  in  every  71 
persons  in  the  city  might,  by  the  law  of  averages,  expect  to 
have  typhoid  fever  in  the  course  of  a  year.  Now  the  chances 
are  only  one  in  2300  —  a  record  surpassed  by  few  large  cities. 

From  the  filtration  beds  or  from  the  original  source,  as 
the  case  may  be,  the  water  usually  goes  into  great  reser- 


Purification  of  Water  81 

voirs  or  standpipes.  Big  iron  pipes,  called  mains,  carry  the 
water  underground  through  the  principal  streets.  From 
these,  smaller  pipes  run  to  side  streets  or  to  separate  houses. 
Here  another  question  is  raised:  Shall  everybody  be  per- 
mitted to  use  all  he  wants,  regardless  of  the  amount  he  or 
some  one  else  really  needs  ? 

Many  places  have  found  it  very  desirable  to  use  meters  in 


Water  Mains. 

each  house  or  factory  and  make  the  user  pay  for  the  amount 
he  actually  takes.  This  has  the  effect  of  making  people 
more  careful  to  avoid  wasting  the  water.  Sometimes  there 
is  enough  of  a  saving  made  possible  in  a  city's  supply  to  cut 
down  noticeably  the  amount  which  has  to  be  pumped  into 
the  reservoirs.  Since  a  city  seldom  goes  into  the  business  of 
supplying  water  in  order  to  make  money,  the  saving  can 
come  back  to  the  people  in  the  form  of  reduced  rates.  No 
doubt  the  use  of  meters  will  soon  be  almost  universal. 
Describe  the  water  supply  of  your  home  and  community. 


82 


The  Health  of  the  Community 


48.  Drainage  and  Sewerage.  —  The  rain  water  and  melted 
snow  must  find  some  way  to  get  to  running  streams,  else  it 
will  collect  in  filthy  puddles  or  disease-breeding  swamps. 
Communities  therefore  have  to  provide  for  this  drainage. 
In  towns  and  cities  there  is  also  a  large  amount  of  another 
sort  of  liquid  waste,  which  we  call  sewage.  This  includes  the 
waste  matter  from  kitchen  sinks,  toilets,  laundries,  and  the 
like,  which  if  allowed  to  collect  gives  off  a  poisonous  gas. 


Sewer  and  Drainage  System  before  the  Street  is  Graded. 
Sewer  mains  under  construction  are  shown  on  page  75. 


Some  efficient  means  of  handling  both  drainage  and  sewer- 
age is  essential  for  every  clean  and  healthful  community. 

Is  there  any  danger  to  health  in  such  outhouses  as  are  shown  in 
the  picture  on  page  89?  Should  an  up-to-date  community  have 
cesspools  ? 

There  is  so  much  difference  in  the  nature  of  the  materials 
to  be  carried  away  that  the  ideal  way  would  be  to  have 
separate  systems  for  the  removal  of  the  rain  water  and  the 
sewage.  But  this  method  seems  expensive,  and  most  cities 
in  this  country  carry  off  the  surface  water  and  the  sewage 


Disposal  of  Wastes  83 

together.  In  order  to  accommodate  sudden  and  heavy- 
rains,  the  main  sewers  laid  under  the  principal  streets  must 
be  large.  They  are  often  constructed  of  concrete  or  vitrified 
brick  instead  of  iron. 

The  water  from  the  surface  of  the  street  pours  into  catch 
basins  at  the  corner  or  in  the  middle  of  the  street.  The  solid 
matter  carried  by  the  water  settles  at  the  bottom  of  these 
basins  and  is  later  cleaned  out ;  the  water  runs  off  in  the 
sewer,  which  also  receives  the  house  sewage  through  pipes. 
The  easiest  place  for  the  sewers  to  discharge  is  into  a  river 
or  lake. 

When  the  sewage  reaches  the  river  or  lake  it  is  full  of  filth 
and  disease  germs,  which  may  menace  the  health  of  other 
communities  touched  by  the  same  body  of  water.  Chicago 
constructed  a  drainage  canal  that  flows  towards  the  Illinois 
and  Mississippi  rivers  instead  of  toward  Lake  Michigan. 
This  suits  Chicago,  which  gets  its  water  supply  from  the  lake, 
but  the  towns  down  the  river  are  not  so  sure  of  the  merits  of 
the  plan.  Seacoast  cities  can  use  their  harbors,  but  pipes 
should  carry  the  sewage  well  out  from  the  shore.  London 
and  Providence  dispose  of  the  sludge,  or  solid  matter,  by 
dumping  it  in  deep  water. 

Some  western  cities,  surrounded  by  desert  land  baked 
by  a  warm  sun,  spread  their  sewage  refuse  out  on  the  sur- 
face, depending  on  the  sun  and  the  dry  air  to  purify  it.  In- 
cidentally they  grow  crops  on  this  sewage-fertilized  soil,  and 
turn  an  honest  penny  which  helps  to  pay  the  expense  of  the 
sewage  system.  Neither  of  these  methods  will  suit  hundreds 
of  communities.  A  few  undertake  to  treat  the  sewage  with 
lime  or  other  chemicals.  But  most  of  them  simply  turn  it 
into  the  nearest  stream,  piously  expecting,  if  they  think  about 
it  at  all,  that  a  good  Providence  will  look  after  the  next 
town  down  the  stream. 

49.  Disposal  of  Wastes.  —  Waste  matter  which  is  not  of  a 
liquid  character  can  be  classified  under  three  heads  —  garbage, 
rubbish,  and  ashes.    Garbage  includes  vegetables  unfit  for 


84  The  Health  of  the  Community 

table  use,  waste  scraps  of  all  kinds  from  the  kitchen,  and 
waste  animal  matter.  Rubbish  includes  waste  paper,  wood, 
tin  cans,  glass,  crockery,  and  such  material.  Ashes  are  the 
remains  from  fuel  burned  in  a  stove  or  furnace.  Each  of 
these  is  so  different  from  the  others  that  they  should 
never  be  mixed,  and  should  be  handled  separately.  Ashes 
are  comparatively  unobjectionable,  and  as  they  can  easily 
be  used  to  fill  in  where  "  made  "  ground  is  needed  they  offer 
no  special  problem  in  regard  to  removal. 


Weighing  Garbage  after  Collection. 

Three  methods  have  been  employed  by  municipalities  to 
get  rid  of  this  waste  matter.  Under  the  license  method  the 
municipality  grants,  in  return  for  a  fee,  the  privilege  of  en- 
gaging in  the  business  of  collecting  garbage  and  other  refuse. 
The  man  who  is  thus  licensed  may  go  from  house  to  house, 
and  the  occupants  pay  him  for  carrying  the  refuse  away. 
Under  the  contract  method,  the  municipality  pays  some  con- 
tractor or  firm  a  definite  sum  per  ton  or  per  year,  and  he 
then  becomes  responsible  for  the  removal  of  the  wastes. 
Under  the  municipal  system  the  municipality  collects  and 


Disppsal  of  Wastes 


85 


disposes  of  its  own  garbage  and  rubbish  just  as  it  cleans  the 
streets  or  looks  after  the  sewers.  Which  plan  do  you  like 
best? 

There  is  good  profit  in  handling  the  garbage  and  rubbish 
if  the  community  is  large  enough  to  furnish  a  considerable 
amount  of  it.  Old  rags  and  paper  can  be  used  again  in 
paper  making.     The  solder  and  even  the  tin  of  old  cans  has 


Too  Valuable  to  Waste. 
Paper  collected  by  rubbish  wagons  is  sorted  and  baled,  ready  for  shipment. 

a  money  value.  The  garbage  can  be  treated  in  such  a  way 
that  grease  and  fats  taken  from  it  can  be  used  in  making  soap, 
low-grade  oils,  and  even,  they  say,  cheap  perfume.  The 
refuse  has  a  commercial  value  in  making  fertilizer. 

But  the  amount  collected  in  a  small  town  would  not  be 
sufficient  to  justify  any  one  in  trying  to  make  money  out  of 
it.  A  furnace  with  hot  flame  may  be  necessary  to  get  rid 
of  the  waste  matter  which  would  menace  seriously  the  health 


86 


The  Health  of  the  Community 


of  any  community  which  did  not  arrange  for  its  removal  and 
disposal.  Some  eastern  towns  run  a  hog  farm  where  they 
use  the  garbage  to  feed  the  animals.  This  method  helps  to 
pay  the  cost  of  collecting  it,  but  there  are  objections  to  eat- 
ing the  flesh  of  hogs  fed  on  such  a  diet. 

Did  your  community  ever  undertake  a  "  clean-up  week  "  ?  Does  it 
need  it?  Would  you  recommend  the  establishment  of  a  national 
Department  of  Health  with  extensive  powers? 


J9E 

HkiE  k-1  *  if  i 

--  -^hF^r^R 

Bh  -pi    m jti#M"'     »■— * 

-•>, 

^■ff^rxBi 

A  Real  Estate  Company's  Slogan. 


50.  Home  Owning.  —  By  the  homes  of  a  community  you 
may  judge  its  people.  The  family  that  has  a  home  of  its 
own,  "  be  it  ever  so  humble,"  has  an  interest  in  common, 
an  inspiration  for  life  and  good  citizenship,  which  those  can 
not  have  who  pay  some  one  else  to  provide  a  roof  under 
which  they  may  sleep  and  eat,  and  who  pack  up  and  move 
to  another  place  on  the  slightest  pretext. 

Yet  the  proportion  of  people  who  own  their  own  dwell- 
ings is  steadily  declining.     Some  are  too  lazy  to  do  the 


Home  Owning  S7 

work  needed  to  care  for  a  house,  and  prefer  to  live  where  a 
janitor  is  supposed  to  clean  the  snow  from  pavements, 
supply  heat  for  rooms,  clean  halls,  and  do  other  such  things. 
Some  thousands  in  every  large  city  feel  that  they  must  live 
within  a  reasonable  distance  of  the  work  where  they  are 
employed,  "and  so  they  crowd  into  tenements  whose  chief 
excuse  for  existence  is  that  they  are  within  walking  distance 
or  a  five-cent  carfare  of  most  of  the  jobs  in  a  city.     Such 


mm*        TSSS * 


Apartment  Houses  along  Riverside  Drive,  New  York. 
These  are  among  the  most  expensive  apartment  houses  in  existence. 

places  can  never  give  the  privacy  and  individuality  that  a 
real  home  ought  to  have. 

The  conditions  of  modern  industry  frequently  cause  people 
to  change  from  one  community  to  another  or  from  one  part 
of  a  city  to  another.  Some  families  are  therefore  unwilling 
to  tie  themselves  down  by  buying  a  house  and  lot  which 
they  might  not  be  able  to  dispose  of  easily  if  they  want  to 
move.  Some  argue  that  there  is  not  much  saving  after  all 
in  owning  a  home,  when  you  have  paid  taxes,  water  rent, 
repairs  and  improvements,  and  perhaps  interest  on  a 
mortgage. 

Yet   whatever   conveniences   even   the   best   apartment 


88  The  Health  of  the  Community 

house  may  afford,  it  can  never  possess  the  spirit  and  senti- 
ment that  are  associated  with  the  old  cottage  in  the  Green 
Mountain  village  or  even  the  little  home  in  West  Philadel- 
phia where  every  house  looks  like  the  next  one.  Stephen  C. 
Foster's  melodies  and  John  Howard  Payne's  "  Home,  Sweet 
Home,"  reach  every  heart  where  the  English  language  is 
known.  But  who  could  get  sentimental  about  Apartment 
10,  on  the  sixth  floor  of  408  West  130th  Street? 

Yet  90  per  cent  of  the  people  of  New  York  City  live  in 
tenements.  The  average  number  in  every  building  on  Man- 
hattan Island  which  is  used  for  dwelling  purposes  is  over  30. 
The  mill  cities  of  New  England,  in  fact  almost  every  large 
city,  show  with  every  new  census  a  lamentable  increase  in 
the  percentage  of  the  people  who  are  tenement  dwellers. 
Detroit,  Los  Angeles,  and  a  few  other  western  cities  are  the 
only  large  communities  where  even  40  per  cent  of  the  people 
own  their  own  homes. 

How  does  the  proportion  of  home  owners  and  renters  stand 
among  your  own  class  and  acquaintances  ?  (Facts  of  this  kind  can 
be  handed  in  on  slips  of  paper  without  signatures.) 

61.  The  Slums.  —  The  loss  of  the  home  spirit  caused  by 
herding  people  together  in  apartment  houses  and  tenements 
is  bad  enough  in  itself,  but  that  is  only  the  beginning  of  the 
evil.  Working  people  whose  wages  are  small  cannot  afford 
to  pay  high  rents.  Especially  if  they  are  foreigners  and 
anxious  to  save  every  penny  they  can  to  send  back  to  the 
old  country  or  to  enable  them  to  go  back  themselves,  they 
will  put  up  with  any  kind  of  accommodations  that  give 
them  a  place  to  sleep.  Whole  families  will  eat  and  sleep  in 
one  room  and  even  take  in  boarders.  What  can  we  expect 
if  some  one  in  this  herd  gets  tuberculosis  or  diphtheria? 

The  outward  surroundings  of  these  places  are  likely  to  be 
equally  bad.  The  owner  of  the  place  wants  to  make  all  the 
money  he  can.  If  his  tenants  do  not  care  whether  they 
have  green  grass  or  not,  he  will  probably  not  try  very  hard 


The  Slums  89 

to  make  it  grow  in  their  neighborhood.  If  he  can  make  ten 
or  a  dozen  families  get  their  water  from  one  cistern  or  spigot, 
it  will  cost  him  far  less  than  to  take  running  water  to  every 
family.  If  a  few  boards  thrown  together  over  a  foul-smelling 
cesspool  will  answer  the  toilet  needs  of  several  families,  why 
go  to  the  expense  of  anything  more  ?  They  would  very  likely 
keep  their  coal  or  potatoes  in  the  bathtub  if  they  had  one. 
Not  a  bit  of  this  is  exaggeration.     Repeated  instances  of 


1  p  p^p* 

••  ai>iWTS 

*  * 

aha 

L         § 

f 

A  Scene  in  the  Slums. 

How  much  do  you  think  could  be  done  to  improve  this  ?    Often  the  build- 
ings are  more  crowded  than  in  this  picture. 

such  conditions  can  be  found  in  almost  any  large  city. 
Look  around  in  your  own  community,  even  if  it  is  not  a 
large  place,  and  see  if  you  do  not  find  something  that  might 
at  least  grow  into  a  slum  district  if  you  let  it  do  so.  Read 
"  How  the  Other  Half  Lives  "  or  "  The  Battle  with  the 
Slum,"  by  Jacob  Riis.  We  cast  no  reflection  on  the  work 
of  the  foreign  missionary  when  we  say  that  a  reading  of  such 
books  may  shock  one  who  had  never  realized  how  much 
missionary  work  needs  to  be  done  in  our  own  metropolis. 
In  such  conditions  good  health  would  be  almost  a  miracle. 


90  The  Health  of  the  Community 

Every  disease  germ  that  afflicts  mankind  would  find  friendly 
lodgment  there.  Worse  than  this,  the  health  of  the  whole 
city  is  endangered.  The  disease-burdened  inhabitant  of 
the  slums  may  pass  in  the  crowded  street  or  ride  in  the  same 
street  car  with  a  member  of  the  most  carefully  nurtured 
family  in  the  city.  Garments  made  in  these  slum  districts 
may  go  to  other  cities,  taking  the  dread  germs  along  with 
them. 

The  moral  effect  of  this  life,  too,  is  unspeakable.  Every 
temptation  to  crime  and  immorality  is  active,  and  there  is 
little  to  encourage  a  person  who  wishes  to  keep  straight. 
Voters  in  these  sections  care  nothing  about  clean  politics  or 
honest  government.  They  pay  no  taxes,  or  very  few.  Any 
politician  can  get  their  votes  who  will  give  them  a  free 
picnic  once  a  year,  or  appeal  to  race  or  religious  prejudice. 
The  slum  is  a  disease  that  gnaws  the  very  vitals  of  the  city. 

Is  there  any  remedy?  Yes,  something  is  being  done  by 
settlement  houses  and  social  workers  who  try  to  interest  the 
slum-dwellers,  particularly  the  young  people,  in  the  higher 
things  of  life.  The  schools  do  a  wonderful  work  in  teaching 
the  children  how  to  live,  how  to  keep  clean,  what  things 
make  for  good  citizenship.  In  such  measures  is  perhaps 
our  best  hope,  for  we  cannot  change  the  older  people 
greatly. 

But  we  can  attack  the  property  owner  who  knowingly 
permits  disgusting  conditions  to  exist.  In  New  York  and 
elsewhere  scores  of  tenements  have  been  completely  torn 
down,  to  make  way  either  for  better  buildings  or  to  allow  a 
little  park,  a  breathing  spot  for  the  people,  to  come  into 
being.  Sometimes  the  city  itself  puts  up  model  tenements 
or  provides  small  one-family  houses  which  are  fit  for  decent 
people  to  live  in.  Fire  escapes,  windows,  air  space  and 
ventilation  are  now  required  by  law,  and  sometimes  the 
owner  of  a  lot  is  forbidden  to  cover  more  than  a  certain  per 
cent  of  the  lot  with  buildings,  so  as  to  secure  the  needed  light 
and  air  for  the  neighborhood.    At  least  we  have  begun  to 


The  City's  Food  Supply 


91 


realize  the  evils  of  the  slum  and  to  show  a  purpose  to  get  rid 
of  them. 

52.  The  City's  Food  Supply.  —  The  big  city  of  to-day  is 
absolutely  dependent  upon  the  railroads  to  keep  its  citizens 
alive.  There  is  never  in  any  community  at  one  time  more 
than  enough  flour,  sugar,  butter,  eggs,  and  such  staple  foods 
to  last  more  than  a  few  weeks 
at  most,  for  the  amount  of  any 
of  those  articles  produced  within 
a  city  is  so  small  that  it  may  be 
almost  neglected.  Its  milk  is 
not  brought  from  so  far  away, 
but  even  one  day's  interruption 
of  the  milk  trains  or  trouble  with 
the  farmers  or  drivers  of  milk 
wagons  makes  some  of  its  resi- 
dents suffer. 

Even  the  supply  of  vegetables 
and  small  fruits  is  furnished  only 
in  part  by  the  farmers  and  mar- 
ket gardeners  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  city.  The  Carolinas, 
Georgia,  Virginia,  and  other 
southern  states  supply  the  rest. 
The   meats,   whether    fresh   or 

canned,  are  likely  to  come  from  the  great  meat-packing 
centers  of  Chicago,  Kansas  City,  St.  Joseph,  and  Omaha. 
The  flour,  quite  possibly  brought  from  the  mills  of  Minne- 
apolis, may  have  been  made  from  wheat  grown  in  North 
Dakota.  Cantaloupes  may  have  come  from  the  Imperial 
Valley  and  oranges  from  Redlands  or  Riverside  in  California. 
The  sugar  was  probably  grown  in  Cuba  or  Hawaii,  and  the 
coffee  in  Brazil.  It  is  a  wonderful  business  —  this  feeding 
a  great  city. 

Can  you  estimate  how  many  people  had  a  part  in  furnishing 
your  breakfast? 


Products  of  the  South. 


m 


The  Health  of  the  Community 


Show  on  a  map  of  the  United  States  the  principal  sources  of  our 
leading  food  products. 


A  North  Dakota  Wheat  Field. 


lfc  is  very  evident  that  the  farmer  who  grows  the  wheat 
and  the  stockman  who  tends  the  cattle  cannot  sell  directly 
to  the  person  who  wants  bread  or  beefsteak.  Several  people 
deal  with  the  commodity  between  the  producer  and  the 


A  California  Fruit  Ranch. 
At  Redlands,  California. 


consumer,  each  one  incidentally  taking  his  little  profit  and 
adding  to  the  final  price.  The  farmer  in  central  New  York 
who  raises  apples  may  sell  them  to  a  commission  merchant 


The  City's  Food  Supply 


93 


in  the  city.  The  merchant  may  dispose  of  them  to  a  whole- 
sale fruit  dealer,  and  the  dealer  in  turn  to  a  huckster  or  retail 
dealer  or  grocer. 

Charges  are  often  made  that  the  commission  merchants 
combine  and  make  agreements  to  keep  the  price  of  goods 
unreasonably  high,  even  going  so  far  as  to  let  goods  rot  in  the 
produce  yards  rather  than  be  put  on  the  market  and  prob- 


Grain  Elevators,  Montreal. 


ably  lower  the  price.  Speculation  in  cold  storage  products 
such  as  eggs,  by  buying  them  when  prices  are  low  and  keep- 
ing them  for  a  time  of  high  prices,  is  also  attempted. 

It  is  difficult  to  prove  in  court  that  such  conspiracies  are 
formed,  and  the  government  has  trouble  in  trying  to  punish 
the  men  who  do  these  things.  It  may  not  be  possible  to  get 
rid  of  all  the  "  middlemen  "  who  are  connected  with  the  sale 
of  food  products,  but  if  some  way  could  be  found  to  accom- 
plish this,  even  in  part,  it  would  help  to  reduce  the  cost  of 
the  people's  food. 


94 


The  Health  of  the  Community 


Trace  a  barrel  of  apples  or  a  crate  of  oranges  from  the  grower  to 
you.     Could  your  community  support  itself  if  necessary? 

53.  Markets.  —  In  order  to  make  it  possible  for  farmers 
to  deal  directly  with  food  buyers  in  town,  some  municipali- 
ties have  built  market  houses  where  people  can  come  and 
buy  fruits,  garden  vegetables,  poultry,  eggs,  meat,  and  the 
like.  Farmers  who  wish  to  take  advantage  of  this  chance 
to  sell  may  rent  a  booth  or  stall  in  the  market  which  they 


Jm 

m 

1 1! 

i  i 

-  l — 

X  ■ 

m 

■H 

'~~~w~*~~-*R«~-». 

Old  Market  House. 


will  regularly  occupy.  City  officers  are  supposed  to  keep 
the  market  clean  and  see  that  honest  weights  and  measures 
are  used.  In  some  places  the  market  is  well  patronized. 
People  feel  that  they  are  getting  fresher  goods  than  they 
could  buy  elsewhere  and  probably  making  a  slight  saving  in 
cost.  The  city  makes  some  profit  from  the  rentals  and 
everybody  is  satisfied. 

Not  all  cities  have  been  equally  successful  with  a  public 
market.  It  is  about  the  only  way  available  for  getting  rid 
of  the  middleman,  but  the  farmers  in  the  markets  will 
naturally  keep  their  prices  up  close  to  those  charged  else- 


Questions  95 

where,  so  that  the  saving  in  money  to  the  public  is  not  great. 
A  heartfelt  vote  of  thanks  is  waiting  for  the  man  who  will 
work  out  a  scheme  by  which  the  people  can  get  fresh,  clean 
food  products  from  convenient  places  without  paying  trib- 
ute to  four  or  five  men  or  firms  who  have  dealt  with  the 
goods  somewhere  on  the  road. 

What  classes  of  people  in  a  community  would  probably  be 
opposed  to  public  markets?  What  new  expedients  to  provide  peo- 
ple with  food  or  to  keep  food  prices  down  were  undertaken  as  a 
result  of  the  Great  War?  What  mistakes  in  the  kind  or  amount  of 
food  used  are  made  by  families  of  your  acquaintance? 

QUESTIONS 

Compare  the  ideas  of  former  times  and  to-day  with  reference  to 
disease.  What  is  the  record  of  the  United  States  now  in  death 
rates?  Where  are  the  best  and  poorest  figures  within  the  country 
and  why? 

In  whose  hands  rests  most  of  the  authority  for  the  control  of 
disease?  Explain  quarantine  rules  for  dealing  with  individual 
cases  of  contagious  disease  or  with  epidemics.  Is  a  person  a  good 
citizen  who  tries  to  evade  a  quarantine  ? 

Mention  the  principal  means  of  a  public  nature  which  aim  to  pre- 
vent disease.  Specify  such  measures  as  apply  to  individual  citizens. 
As  far  as  you  have  observed,  are  these  laws  enforced?  Can  you 
do  anything  about  it  yourself  ? 

What  does  the  national  government  undertake  to  do  in  order  to 
prevent  the  sale  of  unfit  food  products  ?  Mention  certain  activities 
of  state  governments  in  the  same  direction.  What  items  of  food 
regulation  are  usually  left  to  local  governments?  Mention  any 
instances  that  you  know  about. 

Explain  the  necessity  for  public  water  supply  in  large  com- 
munities. From  what  sources  do  some  of  the  large  cities  get  their 
supply? 

Why  must  many  communities  purify  their  water?  What  is  a 
filtration  plant  and  of  what  use  is  it?  Is  there  any  danger  in  using 
water  from  wells  ? 

Explain  the  distribution  of  water  to  the  people.  Should  all 
houses  be  metered  ?  What  kinds  of  waste  matter  have  to  be  drained 
away  and  why  is  this  necessary  ?  Explain  in  general  the  operation 
of  a  sewage  system.  What  is  done  with  the  matter  collected  in  the 
great  drains  or  sewers? 

Describe  the  three  kinds  of  solid  waste  matter.     What  methods 


96  The  Health  of  the  Community 

have  been  employed  to  remove  these?  Which  of  them  is  used  in 
your  community?     What  is  done  with  the  material  collected? 

Of  what  benefit  to  a  family  is  it  to  own  their  home?  Why  do 
some  people  prefer  to  rent?  Which  would  you  do,  own  or  rent,  if 
you  were  free  to  choose  ? 

Why  do  slums  come  into  existence?  Do  you  think  the  fault  is 
chiefly  the  owner's  or  the  tenant's  that  these  conditions  prevail? 
In  what  way  do  the  slums  affect  their  inhabitants  and  the  commu- 
nity at  large?  How  can  they  be  abolished  or  prevented?  Could 
anything  be  done  with  the  scene  shown  in  the  picture  ? 

Show  the  dependence  of  the  city  upon  others  for  its  food.  Where 
do  the  principal  articles  in  our  bills  of  fare  come  from  ?  What  is  the 
purpose  of  the  public  market  ?  Do  you  think  it  helps  to  lower  the 
price  of  food?     Can  you  make  any  other  suggestions  to  that  end? 

SPECIAL  TOPICS 

The  Most  Common  Diseases  of  To-day. 

The  Public  Health  Service  of  Our  State  and  Community. 

What  Sanitation  Did  for  the  Canal  Zone. 

The  Fight  against  Yellow  Fever. 

The  White  Plague  and  How  to  Combat  It. 

The  Hospitals  of  Our  Community. 

My  Experience  in  a  Hospital. 

The  Safety  First  Movement. 

The  Water  Supply  of  Our  Community. 

Housing  Conditions  in  Our  Town. 

Our  Grocery  Stores  and  Meat  Markets. 

The  National  Bureau  of  Chemistry. 

Herbert  C.  Hoover  and  the  National  Food  Administration. 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  HIGHEE  LIFE  OF  THE  COMMUNITY 


Yet  I  doubt  not  through  the  ages  one  increasing  purpose  runs, 
And  the  thoughts  of  men  are  widened  with  the  process  of  the  suns. 

—  Tennyson. 

64.  Public  Provision  for  Recreation  and  Culture.  —  "  All 
work  and  no  play  makes  Jack  a  dull  boy,"  says  the  proverb. 
Play,  if  it  means  rest,  recreation,  and  enjoyment  that  make 


Carnegie  Museum,  Music  Hall,  and  Library,  Pittsburgh. 

it  easier  for  one  to  work  hard  afterward,  is  coming  to  be 
regarded  more  and  more  as  desirable  for  both  young 
and  old. 

But  where  are  people  going  to  play?  A  private  house 
and  yard,  even  the  mansion  and  wide  surroundings  of  a  mil- 
lionaire, cannot  accommodate  all  the  people  of  a  large  com- 
munity.    The  community  must  do  it,  if  it  is  to  be  done. 

97 


98        The  Higher  Life  of  the  Community 


The  city  which  tries  to  give  these  extra  pleasures  and  bene- 
fits to  its  people  is  the  one  where  the  citizens  are  most  likely 
to  be  happy,  healthy,  and  orderly.  And  so,  besides  the 
parks,  playgrounds,  and  libraries,  many  cities  maintain 
museums  and  art  galleries,  furnish  free  band  concerts  and 

even  open  public  dance 
halls,  properly  chaper- 
oned, for  people  to 
broaden  their  minds  or 
have  "  a  good  time." 

Sometimes  a  wealthy 
man  will  by  some  mu- 
nificent gift  play  Santa 
Claus  for  the  town 
where  he  was  born  or 
where  he  made  his 
money.  John  D. 
Spreckels  did  this  for 
San  Diego,  in  present- 
ing the  city  with  a  won- 
derful organ  for  use  in 
giving  open  air  concerts. 
Andrew  Carnegie  put 
millions  of  dollars  into 
a  marvelous  museum, 
music  hall,  and  library 
for  Pittsburgh. 

Some  critic  will  say 
that  he  had  better  have  paid  the  workmen  in  his  mills 
higher  wages.  But  since  he  did  not,  why  should  not  the 
community  where  most  of  his  money  was  made  accept 
gladly  the  part  of  it  which  he  is  willing  to  restore  to  her? 
Many  a  well-to-do  man  never  thinks  of  sharing  his  wealth 
with  the  city  which  helped  him  make  it.  Is  not  a  com- 
munity both  unwise  and  ungracious  which  rejects  the 
wealth  which  it  can  use  to  the  good  of  its  people? 


Open  Air  Organ,  San  Diego,  California. 
This  was  constructed  in  time  for  the 
San  Diego   Exposition   of    1915-16,   but 
has  been  permanently  given  to  the  city. 


Parks  99 

What  does  "recreation"  really  mean?  What  advantages  does 
your  community  offer  for  recreation  for  men,  for  women,  and  for 
children?    Are  country  or  city  people  better  off  in  this  respect? 

55.  Parks.  —  Parks  are  the  most  common  form  of  pro- 
vision which  communities  make  for  public  recreation.  Here 
one  may  get  into  the  open  air  and  rest,  and  get  as  near  to 
nature  as  is  possible  in  a  large  city.  Flower-beds,  bushes, 
and  trees  help  to  make  the  place  inviting  in  appearance  and 
spread  a  quiet,  uplifting  influence  toward  beauty  and  the 


Scene  in  Garfield  Park,  Chicago. 

higher  things.  The  greenhouses  and  conservatories  which 
many  parks  possess  are  educational  as  well  as  interesting, 
and  the  "  zoo  "  is  an  endless  source  of  enjoyment  and  in- 
struction to  old  folks  as  well  as  young. 

Boston  Common  and  the  Public  Garden  form  perhaps 
the  oldest  public  park  in  the  country.  Central  Park  in  New 
York,  Fairmount  Park  in  Philadelphia,  Lincoln  Park  in 
Chicago  with  its  wonderful  collection  of  animals,  Golden 
Gate  Park  in  San  Francisco,  are  known  all  over  the  nation. 
Many  other  cities  have  beautiful  parks  which  are  no  doubt 
equally  deserving  of  mention. 


100      The  Higher  Life  of  the  Community 

The  question  is  sometimes  raised :  Should  a  city  have  one 
or  two  large  parks  or  several  small  ones?  By  all  odds  the 
small  ones,  if  it  cannot  have  both.  For  the  poor  man  with 
a  good-sized  family  cannot  afford  to  take  them  all  on  the 
street  cars  Sunday  afternoon  or  any  other  time  to  get  to  a 
park,  and  he  is  the  one  who  most  needs  it.  But  if  the  city 
can  afford  at  least  one  fine  large  park,  besides  the  smaller 
ones,  it  will  be  still  better,  for  it  cannot  be  expected  to  fur- 


View  in  the  Public  Garden,  Boston. 


nish  every  little  breathing  space  with  all  the  beautiful  and 
attractive  equipment  which  can  be  readily  supplied  in  the 
large  park. 

Should  the  main  idea  in  a  park  be  use  or  beauty  ?  Should  every- 
body be  obliged  to  "keep  off  the  grass"? 

66.  Playgrounds.  —  Probably  nothing  has  done  more  to 
improve  the  life  of  the  poorer  districts  of  a  community  than 
the  opening  of  public  playgrounds.  Here  are  swings,  sand- 
piles,  and  other  things  which  delight  the  children,  and  in- 
structors who  watch  over  their  play  and  show  them  new 


Playgrounds 


JOJ 


If  the  playground  is  at  all  large,  it  will  have  one 
or  more  baseball  diamonds  for  the  boys  and  men,  and  basket 
ball  courts  and  tennis  courts  which  the  girls  and  women  also 
may  use. 

There  should  be  a  field  house  with  baths,  lockers,  a  gym- 
nasium floor,  and  opportunity  for  indoor  athletics  of  all 
kinds.  In  some  cities  there  are  swimming  pools,  indoor  or 
outdoor  or  both,  or  if  the  city  is  at  the  seaside  or  lakeside  it 
may  maintain  public  bathing  beaches  in  connection  with  a 
playground.     Sometimes  classes  are  held  which  give  instruc- 


A  Playground  is  Needed  in  this  Neighborhood. 


tion  in  subjects  of  special  interest  to  women  or  children,  such 
as  sewing,  basketwork,  and  the  like. 

It  is  very  evident  that  to  secure  the  best  results  from  the 
playgrounds  they  must  be  closely  and  carefully  supervised. 
If  all  the  loafers  and  rowdies  of  a  neighborhood  collect  around 
the  playground  and  make  it  unpleasant  for  quiet  and  orderly 
people  to  go  there,  one  may  question  whether  the  com- 
munity is  much  better  off  for  having  the  grounds,  even 
though  the  children  are  safe  from  the  wagons  and  cars  of 
the  streets. 

But  with  proper  supervision  the  playgrounds  will  minister 


1G2      The  Higher  Life  of  the  Community 

('wonderfully  to  the  health,  happiness,  and  decent  living  of 
[  children  and  older  people  alike.  If  they  are  so  situated  as 
to  be  within  easy  reach  of  those  who  most  need  them,  and 
especially  if  they  are  operated,  as  in  many  places  they  now 
are,  in  connection  with  the  public  schools,  they  can  help  to 
develop  in  a  very  high  degree  the  physical,  intellectual,  and 
moral  interests  of  the  community. 

57.   Libraries.  —  Very   few   families   can   afford   all   the 
books,  magazines,  or  newspapers  which  at  some  time  or 


Library,  Middlebury,  Vermont. 

A  type  of  library  building  that  is  becoming  common  in  moderate-sized 
communities  of  the  better  class. 


other  they  want  to  use.  Now  that  our  schools  have  done 
so  much  toward  arousing  in  our  people  an  interest  and 
pleasure  in  reading,  it  is  clear  that  the  community  must 
choose  between  providing  the  means  of  meeting  this  desire 
of  the  people  or  letting  it  go  almost  wholly  ungratified. 
Every  progressive  community  of  as  many  as  a  few  thousand 
people  now  has  a  public  library,  from  which  any  citizen  may 
draw  books  for  home  use  and  where  he  may  go  to  study, 
amuse  himself,  or  merely  pass  away  the  time.  The  great 
majority  of  these  libraries  are  maintained  by  public  taxar 


Libraries 


103 


tion,  and  in  many  cases  building  and  all  are  paid  for  by 
the  community. 

Wealthy  citizens  have  often  adopted  the  idea  of  giving  a 
town  a  library  building  when  they  wished  to  do  something 
for  it.  Town  after  town  in  the  United  States  owes  to  Andrew 
Carnegie  the  existence  of  its  public  library  to-day.  It  has 
been  his  rule  to  insist  that  a  town  which  received  a  library 
building  from  him  must  agree  to  contribute  each  year  a  cer- 


Pageant  Scene,  Medford,  Massachusetts. 

It  is  becoming  common  to  celebrate  anniversary  dates  in  local  history  by 
pageants  that  symbolize  or  illustrate  notable  movements  and  characters. 


tain  sum  to  keep  it  in  good  running  order.  No  doubt  this 
requirement  has  made  many  a  community  help  to  educate 
itself  when  it  otherwise  would  have  neglected  this  duty  on 
the  plea  of  expense. 

In  a  number  of  states  the  state  government  has  under- 
taken the  support  of  a  library  system,  particularly  for  the 
benefit  of  the  rural  districts.  Traveling  libraries,  as  they 
are  called,  are  sent  from  place  to  place,  remaining  in  one 
community  a  while  and  then  being  exchanged  for  another 


104      The  Higher  Life  of  the  Community 

set  of  books  which  a  different  community  has  been  using. 
There  is  no  question  of  the  great  service  rendered  to  the 
people  in  this  way. 

In  both  city  and  country  libraries  have  discovered  that 
one  of  the  most  effective  fields  which  they  can  cultivate  is 
the  public  school.  The  library  may  send  out  assortments 
of  books  which  the  school  will  -keep  for  some  time,  and  use 
in  connection  with  its  class  work.  It  encourages  children 
to  come  to  the  library  to  read  and  to  use  its  reference  books. 
For  the  younger  ones  it  may  hold  a  story  hour,  when  some 
one  gifted  in  talking  to  children  will  tell  them  the  great 
fables  of  literature,  stories  about  famous  men  and  women  of 
history,  or  other  things  which  they  like  to  hear  which  are  at 
the  same  time  helpful  in  some  way.  Get  a  child  started  on 
the  right  path  in  his  reading,  and  you  have  done  much 
toward  making  him  a  thoughtful  and  valuable  citizen. 

Is  there  any  difference  between  the  object  of  the  library  and  of  tlxe 
school?  If  so,  what  is  it?  How  many  books  are  in  your  local 
library?     Of  what  kinds  are  they? 

Are  you  familiar  with  the  exhibits  in  your  museums,  art  galleries, 
and  the  like?  What  have  they  to  offer  that  will  benefit  you  in 
school  work  or  general  culture? 

58.  Religion.  —  It  is  one  of  the  most  cherished  principles 
of  American  government  that  the  State  should  in  no  way 
whatever  force  a  man  to  accept  any  particular  creed  or  sup- 
port any  particular  church  or  interfere  in  any  way  with  his 
religious  beliefs.  This  doctrine  was  almost  revolutionary 
when  Roger  Williams  first  proclaimed  it  in  the  old  Massa- 
chusetts Bay  Colony.  They  exiled  him  for  it,  and  thus 
gave  Rhode  Island  the  opportunity  and  glory  of  establish- 
ing that  principle  in  the  world.  But  now  our  National 
Constitution  declares  that  "  Congress  shall  make  no  law 
respecting  an  establishment  of  religion,  or  the  free  exercise 
thereof,"  and  every  state  adheres  to  the  same  doctrine  and 
practice. 


Religion  105 

In  what  countries  does  the  government  still  help  to  support  any 
church?    Is  free  worship  permitted  to  other  churches  ? 

On  this  account  it  is  difficult  for  a  community  to  do  any- 
thing directly  to  assist  religious  institutions.  Nevertheless 
we  must  recognize  the  great  importance  of  churches,  Sunday 
schools,  Y.  M.  C.  A.'s,  and  the  like  in  the  higher  life  of  any 
community.  Entirely  apart  from  their  distinctly  "  spiritual" 
or  theological  teaching,  they  contribute  wonderfully  toward 


Mormon  Temple  and  Tabernacle,  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah. 

making  any  community  clean,  wholesome,  orderly,  and 
happy.  Most  states  recognize  the  value  of  religious  insti- 
tutions by  exempting  from  taxation  any  property  owned  by 
them.  There  are  people  who  say  that  this  custom  violates 
the  principle  of  complete  separation  of  Church  and  State, 
but  if  all  churches  are  treated  alike  it  is  hard  to  see  where 
any  harm  is  done. 

The  number  of  different  denominations  is  large.  The 
Roman  Catholics,  with  about  15,000,000  adherents,  are  more 
numerous  than  any  one  Protestant  body,  but  the  total  mem- 


106      The  Higher  Life  of  the  Community 

bership  of  Protestant  churches  in  this  country  is  about  30,- 
000,000.  Methodists  are  the  most  numerous  and  Baptists 
second.  In  New  England  the  Congregationalists  rank  first, 
in  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania  the  Presbyterians.  Epis- 
copalians, Disciples  of  Christ,  and  Lutherans  have  also  a 
numerous  membership,  but  they  are  not  centered  in  any  par- 
ticular section. 

The  public  school  is  not  the  place  for  arguments  over  the 
relative  merits  of  different  denominations.    It  is  sufficient 


Church,  Concord,  Massachusetts. 

for  us  to  say  that  much  unnecessary  ill-feeling  has  resulted 
because  some  have  not  realized  that  others  could  hold 
different  views  and  still  be  as  sincere  and  well-meaning 
as  themselves.  It  is  usually  the  case,  too,  that  when 
denominational  differences  are  introduced  into  political  cam- 
paigns, the  results  are  very  unpleasant.  In  time  of  war 
men  of  all  faiths  have  stood  loyally  by  the  cause  of  our 
country.  It  will  be  well  if  we  can  have  the  same  co- 
operation and  mutual  respect  in  time  of  peace. 

A  number  of  questions  that  relate  to  religion  are  the  cause 
of  honest  disagreement.     The  observance  of  Sunday  is  one 


Religious  Instruction 


107 


of  these.  In  the  West  most  places  of  amusement  are  "  wide 
open  "  on  Sunday,  but  in  the  East,  while  most  people  are 
far  less  narrow  in  their  views  than  formerly,  there  is  still  a 
strong  feeling  that  Sunday  should  be  observed  more  quietly 
than  other  days,  that  en- 
terprises carried  on  solely 
for  amusement  and  profit 
should  not  be  open,  and 
that  the  attitude  of  the 
government  should  en- 
courage the  use  of  the 
day  for  worship  and  rest 
rather  than  for  other  pur- 
poses. 

Many  states  have  strict 
laws  relating  to  the  mat- 
ter, which  were  passed 
years  ago,  but  few  of 
them  are  enforced  liter- 
ally. Public  sentiment 
seems  to  be  willing  to 
leave  much  discretion  in 
the  matter  to  the  officials, 
and  whether  the  Sunday 
laws  are  enforced  at  all 

or  not  depends  on  the  controlling  sentiment  of  each  com- 
munity. 

59.  Religious  Instruction.  —  Another  topic  for  disagree- 
ment is  the  teaching  of  religion  or  morals  in  the  schools. 
Many  people  think  that  these  must  be  taught  in  the  schools 
if  they  are  taught  anywhere.  A  great  many  children  do  not 
go  to  any  Sunday  school,  and  many  families  pay  little  atten- 
tion at  home  to  these  matters. 

It  is  hard,  however,  to  work  out  any  code  of  instruction 
which  will  suit  everybody.  Christians  and  Jews,  Catholics 
and  Protestants,   interpret  certain  portions  of  the  Bible 


Cathedral. 


108      The  Higher  Life  of  the  Community 

differently,  and  one  group  is  inclined  to  think  that  some 
particular  teaching  is  fundamentally  important  which  the 
other  does  not  consider  in  the  same  light. 

The  schools  of  Gary,  Indiana,  and  a  few  elsewhere,  allow 
a  part  of  the  regular  school  hours  to  be  used  by  priests  or 
ministers  to  give  religious  instruction  to  children  connected 
with  their  own  denominations.  This  plan,  however,  has  not 
been  received  with  sufficient  favor  to  cause  its  general  intro- 
duction. In  some  states  credit  is  given  for  properly  attested 
Bible  study  done  outside  the  school.  Several  states  have 
laws  requiring  the  reading  of  a  certain  number  of  verses  of 
the  Bible  each  day  in  school,  but  the  courts  in  a  few  states 
have  ruled  that  the  Bible  is  a  sectarian  book  and  must 
therefore  not  be  taught  or  read  publicly  in  the  schools. 

On  one  point  almost  every  one  will  agree — that  the  na- 
tion with  low  religious  and  moral  ideals  is  doomed  to  down- 
fall. The  need  of  sound  and  strong  moral  instruction  is 
clear.  But  whether  the  public  schools  can  safely  do  any- 
thing more  than  this,  or  whether  we  must  leave  strictly 
religious  teaching  to  the  church  and  the  home,  is  a  question 
which  should  not  be  answered  on  the  basis  of  religious 
partisanship.  Our  sole  purpose  should  be  to  do  that  which 
will  establish  the  highest  ideals  of  life  and  conduct  without 
denying  to  any  citizen  absolute  freedom  of  religious  belief . 

QUESTIONS 

Why  should  a  community  pay  taxes  to  enable  people  to  play  or 
rest?  What  do  you  think  of  the  wisdom  of  a  community's  accept- 
ing gifts  from  private  citizens  ? 

For  what  purpose  do  we  have  parks?  Mention  some  notable 
parks.  Should  they  be  large  or  small,  and  where  should  they  be 
located? 

Describe  a  well-conducted  playground.  Of  what  service  may  it 
be? 

What  does  the  public  library  do  for  the  community?  What  are 
1 '  Carnegie ' '  libraries  ?   traveling  libraries  ? 

What  effect  do  religious  organizations  have  upon  a  community? 


Special  Topics  109 

What  is  the  policy  of  our  governments  toward  individual  religious 
beliefs  and  toward  religious  organizations?  Is  ill  feeling  among 
religious  denominations  necessary? 

What  are  the  main  facts  in  regard  to  the  observance  of  Sunday? 
Should  religion  and  morals  be  taught  in  the  public  schools?  State 
the  main  arguments  for  and  against  the  proposition.  What  are  the 
laws  or  customs  in  your  state  or  community  in  regard  to  Bible 
reading  in  the  schools? 

SPECIAL  TOPICS 

A  Visit  to Park. 

Andrew  Carnegie  and  His  Benefactions. 

The  Rockefeller  Foundation  and  Its  Work. 

What  Our  Community  is  Doing  for  the  Physical,  Mental,  and 
Moral  Uplift  of  Its  People. 

The  Churches  of . 

What  My  Church  Believes  In.  (It  would  be  enlightening  to  have 
each  member  of  the  class  write  on  this  subject  and  to  have  the  best 
statement  for  each  denomination  read  by  the  teacher  without  giving 
the  name  of  the  author.  This  topic  should  be  omitted,  however,  if 
the  teacher  thinks  it  would  lead  to  unpleasant  argument,  or  if  state 
laws  forbid  the  discussion  of  religious  doctrine. ) 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  PROTECTION  OF  THE  COMMUNITY 


The  greatest  good  can  be  done  by  preventing  the  commission  of 
unlawful  acts.— Fred  L.  Kohler.         I 


60.  Fire  Losses.  —  No  other  civilized  country  burns  up 
so  much  valuable  property  as  the  United  States  does.  Some- 
body has  figured  out  that  if  all  the  buildings  burned  in  a 
year  in  this  country  were  lined  up  side  by  side,  they  would 
fill  both  sides  of  a  street  1000  miles  long,  or  as  far  as  from 
New  York  to  Chicago.  The  property  destroyed  in  a  year 
in  this  country  is  worth  more  than  $225,000,000.  Add 
to  that  nearly  2000  lives  lost,  many  thousands  of  people 
thrown  out  of  work,  and  the  indirect  losses  and  expenses 
caused  by  ruining  homes  or  interrupting  industries,  and  we 
get  a  total  impression  which  is,  to  say  the  least,  frightful. 

The  worst  part  of  it  is  that  most  of  this  loss  and  suffering 
is  pathetically  unnecessary.  Europe  does  not  suffer  such 
losses.  The  per  capita  loss  in  her  large  cities  is  anywhere 
from  one  half  down  to  one  fifth  of  ours,  although  we  have 
probably  the  most  efficient  fire  departments  that  the  world 
has  ever  known. 

What  is  the  cause  of  all  these  fires?  Carelessness,  criminal 
carelessness,  in  more  than  three  quarters  of  the  cases.  John 
Smith  scratched  a  match  and  failed  to  be  sure  that  it  had 
gone  out  when  he  threw  it  down.  Alec  Smart  threw  away  a 
cigarette  butt  without  looking  to  see  whether  it  was  still 
burning  or  where  he  threw  it.     Bridget  lighted  the  kitchen 

110 


Fire  Fighting 


111 


fire  with  kerosene.  Mary  washed  her  gloves  in  gasoline  in 
the  neighborhood  of  an  open  fire.  Little  Johnny  and  Sarah 
were  playing  with  matches.  Uncle  John  had  a  bonfire  in 
the  garden  and  did  not  bother  to  make  sure  that  it  was  out 
when  he  left  it.  So  we  might  go  on  for  another  page.  Some 
fires  are  deliberately  set.  Such  an  act  is  almost  inhuman, 
but  fires  started  by  carelessness  do  just  as  much  damage. 
Fires  that  are  unavoidable,  such  as  those  caused  by  lightning, 
do  not  cause  more  than  one  dollar's  damage  in  every  seventy 
dollars  lost. 

Find  out  about  some  of  the  great  fires  of  history  —  particularly 
how  they  started. 


61.   Fire  Fighting.  —  There  is  good  reason,  then,  why  the 
fire  departments  of  the  United  States  are  the  best  in  the 
world.     They  have  to  be !    One  who  is  heartless  enough  to 
forget  the  loss  and  suf- 
fering  caused  by  a  fire 
will  be  tempted  to  laugh 
when   he    reads    of    the 
frantic  but  almost  hope- 
less  efforts  to    put  out 
fires  before  the  modern 
fire  engine  came  into  use. 

The  "  bucket  brigade," 
which  passed  pails  and 
tubs  from  hand  to  hand 
from  a  river  or  well  to  the 

fire,  represented  a  community's  sympathy  and  struggle  against 
misfortune,  but  often  not  much  more.  The  pump  on  wheels 
which  was  dragged  to  the  scene  of  the  fire  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  years  ago  could  get  a  little  more  force  applied  to 
the  water,  but  if  no  well  was  handy,  it  was  useless.  The  vol- 
unteer fire  company,  who  assembled  as  soon  as  they  could 
after  an  alarm  was  given,  and  drew  the  engine  to  the  fire  by 
hand  with  the  help  of  long  ropes,  was  a  decided  improve- 


Fire  Engine. 


112       The  Protection  of  the  Community 


ment;   but  no  large  city  to-day  would  care  to  trust  itself 
to  them. 

We  must  have  regular  companies  always  on  duty,  officered 
and  organized  to  work  with  military  efficiency.  We  have 
our  engines,  our  hook  and  ladder  trucks,  our  chemical  appa- 
ratus which,  if  the  fire 
has  not  too  much  of  a 
start,  can  put  it  out 
without  causing  the  dam- 
age that  comes  from 
hurling  thousands  of  gal- 
lons of  water.  The 
largest  cities  also  have 
their  water-towers  and 
fire-boats  to  use  in  get- 
ting at  a  fire  which  has 
got  started  in  an  awk- 
ward place  to  reach. 
Electric  or  gasoline  power 
is  generally  displacing 
the  horses. 

The  number  of  engine- 
houses  and  firemen 
needed  by  a  city  depends 
somewhat  on  the  ground 
which  they  have  to  cover. 
A  hilly  city,  like  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  or  San  Francisco, 
needs  more  than  a  level  city.  When  we  see  the  firemen 
sitting  around  in  the  engine-house  playing  cards  or  looking 
at  the  scenery,  we  may  wonder  why  we  pay  taxes  to  get 
men  to  do  that.  But  when  we  realize  that  within  ten 
minutes  these  same  men  may  be  risking  their  lives  to  save 
others  and  that  their  skill  and  courage  may  keep  a  whole 
city  from  destruction,  we  are  willing  to  admit  that  perhaps 
we  should  want  more  pay  than  they  get  if  we  had  to  take 
their  places. 


Engine  House. 


Fire  Prevention 


113 


Many  cities  have  a  pension  system  which  enables  a  fire- 
man to  retire  from  active  service  on  reduced  pay  after  a  cer- 
tain number  of  years.  Special  training-schools  for  firemen 
are  frequently  provided,  so  that  they  may  be  fully  instructed 
in  everything  that  relates  to  their  work. 

62.  Fire  Prevention.  —  Big  fires  still  occur,  for  sometimes 
a  blaze  has  gone  so  far  before  it  is  discovered  that  the  best 


A  Dangerous  Fire  Hazard. 

At  Revere  Beach,  Massachusetts.    A  fire  started  anywhere  in  this  row 

would  probably  sweep  away  the  whole  of  it. 

that  can  be  done  is  to  limit  it  to  the  building  where  it  broke 
out.  The  proper  way,  after  all,  to  fight  fires  is  to  see  that 
they  do  not  get  started.  This  may  be  done  in  two  ways : 
by  constructing  buildings  so  as  to  make  them  less  risky,  and 
by  urging  people  to  be  careful  and  showing  them  how  their 
carelessness  may  cause  a  fire. 

Most  of  the  large  cities  now  establish  "  fire  limits,"  within 
which  they  do  not  allow  any  large  wooden  buildings  to  be 
erected.    Theaters  must  have  asbestos  curtains,  to  shut  off 


114       The  Protection  of  the  Community 


the  auditorium  from  the  stage  and  the  rest  of  the  building. 
Automatic  sprinklers  are  installed  in  many  business  places. 
Stairways  and  air  shafts  must  be  of  fireproof  material,  as 
far  as  possible. 

To  protect  the  lives  of  people  in  public  buildings,  the  aisles 
must  always  be  kept  open,  doors  must  open  outward,  and 
there  must  be  plenty  of  fire  escapes,  all 
plainly  marked.  Many  of  these  require- 
ments must  be  observed  in  the  construc- 
tion of  tenements.  Schools  must  have 
fire  drills,  so  that  every  one  in  the  build- 
ing may  get  out  in  the  quickest  and 
most  orderly  fashion  possible. 

Fires  in  homes  can  almost  entirely  be 
prevented  by  the  most  ordinary  kind  of 
care.  The  lists  of  "  Don'ts  "  which  are 
issued  by  fire  officials  from  time  to 
time  are  so  simple  that  they  seem  almost 
silly,  but  most  house  fires  are  caused  by 
disregard  of  these  simple  rules.  Fire- 
places or  gas  stoves  unprotected  by  some 
kind  of  screen  are  responsible  for  many 
fires  and  deaths,  especially  of  children. 
The  handling  of  explosives  or  matches  is 
to  blame  for  many  more.  Electric  wir- 
ing if  done  by  some  one  who  does  not 
know  his  business  is  dangerous.  Putting  hot  ashes  in 
wooden  boxes  or  piling  up  wood  or  paper  near  a  stove  or 
furnace  is  a  frequent  cause  of  fire.  Common  sense  would 
tell  us  not  to  do  these  and  many  other  reckless  things,  but 
many  of  us  do  not  use  it  as  often  as  we  ought. 

One  reason  why  fires  are  not  so  common  in  European  cities 
is  that  the  governments  pay  more  attention  to  the  inspec- 
tion of  private  houses  and  business  places  than  we  do,  and 
that  they  enforce  strictly  the  rules  which  they  lay  down. 
Here  we  have  almost  no  inspection  of  private  houses,  for 


Fire-alarm  Box. 

"  Break  the  glass, 
open  the  door,  and 
pull  down  the  hook." 
The  other  side  of  this 
post  holds  a  police 
telegraph  box.  Just 
behind  these  is  seen 
a  mail  box. 


The  Work  of  the  Police  115 

Americans  think  that  this  is  inquisitive  meddling  into  private 
affairs  and  they  resent  it.  A  little  unprejudiced  thinking  will 
show  that  this  is  wrong,  and  that  we  need  more  "  meddling  " 
rather  than  less. 

Some  cities  do  have  bureaus  of  building  inspection  which 
make  factory  owners  and  proprietors  of  tenement  houses 
comply  with  the  laws.  Three  fourths  of  the  states  also  have 
fire  marshals,  who  may  make  regulations  for  fire  prevention 
and  go  into  any  building  to  inspect  it  and  see  that  the  regu- 
lations are  obeyed.  They  also  investigate  the  causes  of 
fires  that  have  occurred. 

What  would  you  do  if  a  fire  started  where  you  were? 

63.  Fire  Insurance.  —  From  two  thirds  to  three  fourths 
of  the  fire  loss  in  the  United  States  is  covered  by  insurance. 
Considerably  over  $50,000,000,000  of  fire  insurance  is  in 
force  in  this  country.  It  comes  in  very  handily  if  one  suffers 
from  a  fire,  but  after  all  it  is  a  kind  of  waste,  even  though 
necessary.  It  is  simply  a  means  of  distributing  one  man's 
loss  among  many,  so  that  no  one  will  feel  it  very  heavily. 
If  there  were  no  fires,  all  the  money  paid  for  premiums  on 
insurance  could  be  saved,  and  these  amount  to  about  double 
the  payments  for  fire  losses. 

64.  The  Work  of  the  Police.  —  Probably  the  first  thought 
that  enters  our  heads  if  we  are  asked  the  duties  of  the  police- 
man is  that  he  arrests  lawbreakers.  True,  that  is  one  of 
his  valuable  services.  He  may  arrest  a  person  whom  he 
sees  committing  a  crime,  or  whom  he  finds  acting  in  a  sus- 
picious manner,  or  for  whose  arrest  a  warrant  has  been  issued. 

But  another  important  reason  for  having  policemen  is  to 
prevent  crime.  The  very  fact  that  there  are  policemen 
causes  people  who  are  tempted  to  break  the  law  to  refrain 
from  doing  so.  Sometimes  a  word  or  act  from  a  policeman 
may  keep  a  person  out  of  mischief,  may  quiet  an  unruly 
mob,  or  may  induce  a  man  to  do  right  instead  of  wrong. 

Still  another  large  function  of  the  policeman  is  to  give 


116       The  Protection  of  the  Community 

advice  and  assistance  to  people.  The  "  traffic  cop  "  stands 
where  two  or  more  busy  streets  intersect,  helps  ladies  get 
across  in  safety,  and  directs  the  movement  of  automobiles 
and  street  cars  so  as  to  keep  them  from  hopeless  confusion. 
The  little  girl  who  has  strayed  away  from  her  mother  and  does 
not  know  the  way  home  can  go  confidently  and  ask  the 
policeman  to  direct  her.  Strangers  who  want  to  know  how 
to  get  to  the  Palace  Hotel  or  any  other  place  expect  the 


Cornerman  on  Duty. 
A  much  busier  traffic  man  is  seen  on  page  59. 


policeman  to  be  able  to  tell  them  —  in  fact  he  is  the  one 
person  in  a  strange  city  in  whom  a  visitor  has  a  right  to  put 
absolute  confidence.  Keeping  the  streets  clear  so  that 
parades  may  pass,  preventing  disorder  at  public  meetings, 
warning  people  who  do  not  clean  the  snow  from  their  side- 
walks—  these  are  a  few  of  the  thousand  and  three  things 
which  a  policeman  has  to  do. 

In  European  cities,  notably  in  Germany,  they  keep  watch 
of  a  person's  movements  with  a  strictness  that  seems  to  most 


Management  in  the  United  States        117 

Americans  unendurable.  But  at  least  it  must  be  said  that 
it  is  not  easy  for  a  criminal  to  get  away  from  the  German  or 
French  police  authorities.  If  they  could  only  get  the  same 
results  without  treating  an  honest  man  like  a  possible  criminal 
too,  it  would  be  fine.  Maybe  the  ideal  is  a  compromise 
between  European  strictness  and  American  laxity. 

Do  police  officials  in  your  neighborhood  enjoy  the  respect  of  the 
citizens? 

65.  European  Systems  of  Management.  —  Two  features 
in  particular  distinguish  European  police  management  from 
American.  (1)  The  control  of  the  police  is  in  the  hands  of 
the  central  government.  Sometimes  a  Minister  of  Police  is 
in  the  national  cabinet.  This  arrangement  makes  it  possible 
to  police  an  entire  nation  with  a  thoroughness  which  is  out 
of  the  question  in  this  country.  (2)  The  military  element  in 
their  work  is  very  noticeable.  The  high  authorities  are 
likely  to  be  army  officers,  and  every  policeman  on  the  con- 
tinent has  spent  not  less  than  two  or  three  years  in  compul- 
sory military  service.  They  have  been  taught  that  orders 
are  given  to  be  obeyed  and  that  laws  which  are  made  are  to 
be  enforced.  The  result  of  all  this  is  a  strictness  of  law  en- 
forcement, an  unyielding  discipline,  and  a  fear  of  authority 
which  are  wholly  lacking  among  us. 

66.  Management  in  the  United  States.  —  In  this  country 
we  usually  allow  each  community  to  organize  and  manage 
its  police  force.  We  expect  each  local  government  to  pay 
the  cost  of  its  own  police  protection.  There  is  almost  no 
uniformity  between  one  city  and  another.  Generally  some 
one  called  the  chief  of  police  or  superintendent  of  police  is  at 
their  head,  and  below  him  are  captains,  lieutenants,  ser- 
geants, and  the  like.  The  patrolmen  constitute  the  great 
body  of  the  force.  They  have  a  specially  assigned  "  beat  " 
to  go  over  within  a  certain  time,  except  when  they  have  to 
go  out  of  their  regular  way  to  arrest  a  person  or  attend  to 
some  other  unusual  work. 


118       The  Protection  of  the  Community 

A  first-class  policeman  needs  to  possess  firmness,  good 
judgment,  and  ability  to  move  quickly  when  occasion  re- 
quires. In  large  cities  a  system  of  civil  service  examinations 
requiring  both  mental  and  physical  tests  is  required  for  both 
policemen  and  firemen.  Where  these  tests  are  really  applied, 
the  policemen  are  a  vigorous,  athletic,  intelligent  group  of 
men,  not  at  all  like  the  incompetent  fellows  who  get  on  the 
force  in  cities  where  bad  politics  or  other  evil  influence  holds 
sway.  Many  cities  have  a  pension  system  for  policemen  as 
well  as  for  firemen. 

The  detective  force  or  "  plain  clothes  men  "  have  the 
special  duty  of  getting  evidence  in  cases  where  it  is  not  wise 
to  deal  too  openly,  and  keeping  particular  guard  to  protect 
the  public  from  pickpockets,  forgers,  and  other  criminals 
who  are  uncommonly  tricky  or  skillful.  Some  of  these  men 
the  detectives  know  by  sight  and  if  one  is  found  in  a  city 
he  may  be  warned  to  get  out  before  he  has  any  chance  to 
rob  or  cheat  anybody.  Some  cities  have  recently  appointed 
policewomen  to  positions  on  the  force. 

In  a  few  states,  the  state  government  exercises  a  direct 
oversight  over  the  police  of  its  largest  cities.  This  is  done 
on  the  theory  that  what  happens  in  the  big  city  concerns 
the  rest  of  the  state  so  much  that  it  should  not  be  free  to  do 
wholly  as  it  pleases,  particularly  in  enforcing  some  laws. 
If  the  big  city  is  controlled  by  a  different  political  party 
from  the  rest  of  the  state,  another  less  creditable  reason  for 
state  control  appears. 

Do  you  think  you  could  be  a  good  policeman? 

67.  Police  Corruption.  —  We  have  to  admit  that  there 
are  times  when  the  police,  instead  of  impartially  suppressing 
all  crime  which  they  know  of,  wilfully  ignore  or  even  en- 
courage it.  The  saloon-keeper  who  wants  to  sell  on  Sunday, 
the  grocer  who  likes  to  cover  half  the  sidewalk  with  a  dis- 
play of  his  goods,  the  man  who  owns  a  house  where  gambling 
and  other  vile  practices  are  carried  on,  are  very  willing  to 


Police  Corruption 


119 


pay  the  policeman  good  money  not  to  see  the  forbidden 
things  which  they  want  to  do.  If  these  lawbreakers  are 
connected  with  a  dishonest  political  ring,  they  have  an  in- 
fluence which  a  policeman  would  probably  not  dare  to  defy. 
One  of  the  distressing  things  about  the  whole  business  is 
that  sometimes  when  a  policeman  is  personally  honest  and 
wants  to  do  his  duty,  he  finds  that  it  is  of  no  use  to  arrest 


Sidewalk  Marketing. 

Scenes  like  this  can  be  observed  in  almost  any  large  city.  Goods  are 
exposed  to  handling  and  to  all  kinds  of  dirt.  Traffic  is  impeded  on  the 
sidewalk  and  in  the  street. 

certain  people.  If  they  are  taken  to  court  they  are  never 
punished,  because  some  one  "  higher  up  "  in  the  police  de- 
partment or  in  politics  may  himself  be  getting  a  secret,  dis- 
honorable profit  out  of  this  very  lawbreaking.  So  many 
secret  trails  and  by-paths  can  be  followed  by  the  forces  of 
evil  in  a  large  city  that  the  mass  of  the  people  never  know 
how  or  why  things  are  done. 


120       The  Protection  of  the  Community 

The  only  remedy  for  this  bad  situation  is  to  see  to  it  that 
we  have  men  in  the  highest  city  offices  who  are  strong  and 
wise.  The  great  majority  of  the  men  in  the  ranks  are  honest 
or  will  be  honest  if  they  have  the  proper  encouragement 
from  their  superiors.  After  all,  conditions  are  almost  every- 
where better  than  they  once  were. 

68.  Emergency  Measures.  —  There  are  times  when  the 
local  police  force  cannot  handle  a  riot,  a  great  strike  with 
its  disorder  and  destruction  of  property,  or  a  situation  grow- 
ing out  of  a  great  fire  or  flood.  In  such  a  case  the  governor 
of  the  state  may  be  asked  to  send  the  state  militia  or  national 
guard,  or  a  part  of  it,  to  the  scene  of  difficulty.  Such  occa- 
sions are  rare,  yet  there  are  times  when  a  body  of  men  from 
out  of  town  will  be  more  respected  and  will  feel  more  like 
maintaining  order  than  the  local  officers. 

A  few  states,  such  as  Pennsylvania,  have  a  special  state  police 
force,  called  the  "state  constabulary,"  who  are  directly  under  the 
authority  of  the  state,  and  may  be  sent  anywhere  within  its  borders. 
Would  you  advocate  this  plan  for  your  state  ? 

Even  the  President  may  be  asked  by  the  state  legislature, 
if  it  is  in  session,  or  by  the  governor,  to  take  a  hand  by  send- 
ing federal  troops,  or  may  do  so  on  his  own  responsibility  if 
he  believes  the  authority  of  the  United  States  is  being  dis- 
regarded, as  President  Cleveland  did  in  the  Pullman  strike 
of  1894.  It  is  seldom  necessary  to  keep  the  state  troops  or 
federal  troops  on  duty  more  than  a  week  or  two.  If  they  are 
needed  beyond  that  period,  it  is  evident  that  some  condi- 
tion is  utterly  wrong  in  the  life  of  the  neighborhood  and 
that  a  reform  of  some  kind  is  needed  rather  than  the  endless 
show  of  force. 

QUESTIONS 

Compare  American  fire  losses  with  those  of  other  countries. 
Why  do  we  have  so  many  fires  ?  Compare  old  and  new  methods  of 
fighting  fires.  Give  an  account  of  the  firemen  and  their  work 
to-day. 


Special  Topics  121 

State  the  principal  regulations  that  aim  to  prevent  the  loss  of 
property  and  life  if  a  fire  gets  started.  Make  out  a  list  of  "  Don'ts  " 
that  may  help  to  prevent  fires.  Discuss  government  inspection  as  a 
means  of  preventing  fires. 

Do  you  believe  in  fire  insurance?  How  much  is  carried  in  this 
country  to-day  ? 

Make  a  list  of  the  things  which  a  policeman  on  an  ordinary  beat 
may  have  to  do.  What  other  special  services  are  required  of  the 
police? 

Compare  European  police  management  with  that  of  the  United 
States.  What  titles  are  given  to  officers  in  our  police  forces? 
What  qualifications  are  needed  in  order  to  serve  successfully  on  the 
force  ?  Should  the  state  government  have  anything  to  say  about 
the  local  police  ?  Under  what  circumstances  might  the  state  gov- 
ernment take  charge  of  affairs  in  a  community  to  keep  order? 
Could  the  national  government  ever  do  anything  of  the  kind? 

What  is  meant  by  "police  corruption"?  Do  you  think  it  is 
common  ?     Who  is  to  blame  ? 


SPECIAL  TOPICS 

Our  Local  Fire  Department. 

The  Great  Fire  of  Chicago  or  San  Francisco  or (your  own  or 

a  neighboring  town,  if  it  has  had  one). 

What  to  Do  and  What  Not  to  Do  when  a  Fire  Breaks  Out. 
Our  Local  Police. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

TBAINING  THE  YOUNG  CITIZEN 


It  was  in  making  education  not  only  common  to  all  hut  in  some 
sense  compulsory  on  all,  that  the  destiny  of  the  free  republics  of 
America  was  practically  settled.— Lowell. 


69.  Reasons  for  Public  Schools.  —  There  is  no  sense  in 
giving  a  man  or  woman  the  ballot  who  does  not  know  enough 
to  have  an  intelligent  opinion  about  the  questions  with  which 
the  government  has  to  deal.  A  nation  which  believes  in 
democracy  as  much  as  we  do  ought  to  have  every  citizen 
as  thoroughly  educated  as  his  own  abilities  will  permit. 
Since  some  parents  do  not  take  enough  interest  in  their 
children's  progress  to  make  them  go  to  school,  the  state  has 
to  compel  them  to  do  so. 

It  would  not  be  possible,  either,  for  the  state  to  leave 
education  entirely  to  the  churches.  Some  denominations 
think  that  schools  ought  to  be  part  of  the  work  of  the 
church,  but  in  most  communities  those  of  particular  beliefs 
are  not  numerous  or  wealthy  enough  to  conduct  their  own 
schools.  On  the  whole,  then,  it  seems  best  to  leave  to  the 
state  the  important  matter  of  training  its  citizens. 

Many  families,  too,  can  not  afford  to  pay  to  send  their 
children  to  any  kind  of  private  schools,  and  so  the  state 
must  train  them  if  they  are  to  receive  any  education  at  all. 
For  the  fitting  of  the  children  themselves  to  take  up  their 
work  in  life  honestly  and  intelligently,  and  for  its  own  pro- 
tection from  ignorance  and  lawlessness  and  incompetency, 
the  state  must  educate  its  children. 

122 


Education  in  Other  Countries  123 

Some  one  may  ask :  Why  should  those  who  have  no  chil- 
dren in  the  schools  pay  toward  the  cost  of  running  them? 
The  answer  is :  Everybody  benefits  directly  or  indirectly 
by  it.  The  great  majority  of  all  our  people  do  attend  the 
public  schools.  Over  23,000,000  of  them  attended  in  1916 
alone.  The  life,  property,  and  general  welfare  of  every 
citizen  are  safer  if  all  the  people  are  educated,  and  every  one 
is  indirectly  benefited  thereby.  And  certainly  there  is  just 
as  much  reason  for  a  man  to  refuse  to  pay  taxes  to  be  spent 
for  keeping  up  any  street  except  those  which  he  uses,  as  to 
be  unwilling  to  support  the  schools  to  which  all  the  chil- 
dren of  all  the  people  may  go. 

Does  the  furnishing  of  free  public  education  by  the  state  create 
any  obligation  on  the  part  of  public  school  pupils  ? 

70.  Education  in  Other  Countries.  —  Other  great  nations 
follow  different  fines  in  managing  their  schools  from  those 
which  we  pursue.  In  many  of  them,  even  England,  the 
established  church  either  controls  the  schools  or  is  helped 
to  maintain  its  own  schools  out  of  the  national  treasury. 
England  is  like  the  United  States  in  not  having  a  thoroughly 
organized  national  school  system.  The  great  boys'  schools 
and  the  colleges  are  not  connected  in  any  direct  way  with 
the  "  board  "  schools,  or  what  we  should  call  the  public 
schools.1 

France  and  Prussia  are  the  great  models  for  centrally  con- 
trolled and  definitely  arranged  national  organization  of  the 
schools.  In  France  a  minister  of  public  instruction  is  a 
member  of  the  national  cabinet.  The  system  there  in  vogue 
provides  distinctly  laid-out  courses  of  instruction  all  the 
way  from  the  kindergarten  to  the  universities.  Only  about 
seven  years  are  compulsory,  however. 

Probably  the  German  schools  have  been  more  widely  ad- 
vertised than  any  others  because  of  the  thoroughness  with 

1In  England  the  name  "  public  school "  is  applied  only  to  expensive,  en- 
dowed schools  like  Rugby,  Eton,  Harrow,  Winchester,  and  a  few  others. 


124  Training  the  Young  Citizen 

which  everything  German  was  supposed  to  be  done.  Their 
system  had  some  features  which  we  should  not  want  to 
adopt  in  this  country.  Right  at  the  very  start,  almost,  a 
distinction  was  made  between  the  schools  which  lead  to  the 
universities  and  those  intended  for  the  working  people,  so 
that  a  class  distinction  was  marked  most  of  the  way.  The 
schools  were  not  free  as  they  are  here,  and  the  training  offered 
for  girls  has  been  much  less  complete  than  that  for  boys. 


A  New  England  Academy. 

This  institution,  as  well  as  numerous  others,  has  been  forced  to  close  its 
doors  as  a  result  of  high  school  competition. 

71.  Difference  and  Likeness  in  the  States*  School  Sys- 
tems. —  Our  American  schools  grew  instead  of  being  planned. 
Each  state  has  worked  out  its  own  system  of  management 
and  organization,  and  no  two  are  alike.  At  first  the 
public  schools,  for  example,  did  not  go  beyond  what  we 
often  call  "  the  grades."  Academies  were  left  for  churches 
or  private  enterprise  and  generosity  to  establish,  and  col- 
leges were  wholly  outside  the  thought  of  the  public  schools. 

It  was  not  until  after  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century 
that  there  were  many  high  schools  supported  by  public 
money.  But  the  twentieth  century  has  witnessed  a  most 
wonderful  expansion  of  high  school  work.    The  West  has 


State  School  Systems 


12£ 


followed  rather  consistently  a  system  of  free  instruction  all 
the  way  from  the  primary  school  to  the  state  university. 

In  every  state  there  is  a  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion, though  not  always  called  by  just  that  title,  and  usually 
a  State  Board  of  Education,  composed  of  a  small  number  of 
men  interested  in  the  public  schools.  In  about  two  thirds 
of  the  states  the  Superintendent  is  elected  by  popular  vote. 
In  the  others  he  is  appointed  by  the  governor  or  State  Board. 


High  School  and  Stadium,  Tacoma,  Washington. 


The  powers  of  the  State  Superintendent  and  Board  vary 
greatly.  In  some  states  they  do  not  do  much  except  re- 
ceive reports  and  make  recommendations.  In  others  they 
exercise  a  very  close  supervision  over  the  schools  of  the 
whole  state.  In  New  York  the  Board  of  Regents  arranges 
for  uniform  examinations  to  be  given  throughout  the  entire 
state. 

In  some  states  the  same  textbook  is  adopted  for  use  in 
every  school,  but  in  others  each  school  district  or  township 
is  allowed  to  select  its  own.  Some  states  do  not  furnish  free 
textbooks,  except  to  poor  children. 

Should  free  textbooks  be  furnished  in  all  public  schools  ?  Is  it  best 
for  all  schools  in  a  state  to  use  the  same  books? 


126 


Training  the  Young  Citizen 


A  Country  Schoolhouse. 


For  the  management  of  the  schools  the  common  plan 
formerly  was  to  let  each  little  community  form  a  school 
district  and  handle  its  own  affairs.  This  system  began  in 
New  England  with  the  very  start  of  the  common  schools, 
back  in  the  old  days  when  there  were  no  public  schools 

anywhere  else.  The  dis- 
tricts naturally  had  very 
different  kinds  of 
schools.  One  might  be 
rich  and  be  willing  to 
pay  for  good  teachers 
and  pleasant  buildings, 
while  the  next  one  might 
choose  its  teachers  be- 
cause they  were  related 
to  the  school  board,  and 
might  have  very  little 
money  to  spend. 
But  m  most  of  New 
England  and  in  many  other  states,  the  township  or  city 
now  forms  a  school  district.  All  the  schoolhouses  in  the 
district  are  under  the  same  management.  Often  central 
schools  are  maintained  to  which  the  pupils  are  brought  from 
all  parts  of  the  township.  Better  teachers  and  finer  equip- 
ments can  be  supplied  to  all  in  this  way. 

In  many  southern  states  the  schools,  like  everything  else, 
are  administered  by  counties.  Either  the  county  as  a  whole 
is  considered  a  school  district  or  else  it  is  subdivided  into 
districts. 

Try  to  find  figures  about  the  attendance  in  public  schools  as 
compared  with  private  schools.  How  many  colleges  are  there  in  the 
country?  Name  ten  of  special  note.  To  what  extent  do  women 
go  to  college  in  comparison  with  men?  Do  you  advise  every  one 
to  go? 

72.  School  Administration.  —  In  each  school  district 
there  is  a  board  of  directors  or  trustees,  who  are  responsible 


School  Administration  127 

before  the  law  for  the  conduct  of  school  affairs  in  their  dis- 
trict. If  the  district  is  large  or  moderately  large,  they  are 
likely  to  elect  a  superintendent  and  intrust  the  active  manage- 
ment of  the  schools  to  him.  In  each  county  there  is  a  county 
superintendent,  who  in  many  states  is  elected  by  popular 
vote. 

The  most  important  part  of  the  whole  school  system  is 
the  teacher.    With  a  good  teacher  a  good  school  can  be 


Courtesy  of  National  Child  Labor  Committee 

Union  School  in  Rural  Kentucky. 

This  building  represents  the  much  needed  work  now  going  on  for  the 
improvement  of  conditions  in  southern  country  life. 

held  in  a  barn,  but  the  most  expensive  building  will  be  the 
same  as  money  thrown  away  if  its  rooms  are  not  in  charge 
of  teachers  who  know  what  they  are  supposed  to  teach, 
know  how  to  teach  it,  and  take  a  real  interest  in  the  progress 
of  the  boys  and  girls  who  come  under  their  care. 

Most  states  now  have  normal  schools  for  the  training  of 
teachers  and  require  most  of  their  high  school  teachers  to 
be  college  graduates.  Every  teacher  must  have  a  certifi- 
cate, which  will  be  graded  in  accordance  with  the  teacher's 
education  and  experience.     Politics  and  family  connections 


128  Training  the  Young  Citizen 

should  not  have  anything  to  do  with  the  choice  of  a  teacher, 
and  a  teacher  who  does  good  work  ought  to  feel  sure  of 
holding  his  position  indefinitely. 

Work  out  a  diagram  showing  the  plan  of  management  of  your  own 
school  system. 

73.   School    Attendance.  —  Most   of   the   states   require 
that  schools  shall  be  open  from  seven  to  nine  months  in  the 


Southwestern  State  Normal  School,  California,  Pennsylvania. 

year.  Some  of  the  best  schools  have  a  ten  months'  term. 
In  the  South  the  school  term  has  been  shorter  than  in  other 
sections  of  the  country,  but  great  improvement  is  appearing 
there  as  well  as  everywhere  else. 

Are  our  school  days  and  school  terms  long  enough? 

Almost  every  state  requires  children  to  attend  for  six  or 
eight  years  —  from  7  to  15  or  8  to  16  years  of  age,  for  ex- 
ample. Laws  against  employment  of  children  in  mills  and 
factories  before  they  are  14  years  old  have  been  passed  by 
several  states,  and  in  some,  if  a  child  leaves  school  before 


School  Revenues  129 

he  is  16,  he  must  attend  a  "  continuation  school "  until  he 
reaches  that  age. 

One  of  the  problems  of  the  school  has  been  to  keep  the 
children  there  long  enough  for  them  to  get  an  education  that 
would  amount  to  something.  Always  there  are  pupils  who 
want  to  get  to  work  at  the  earliest  possible  minute.  Many 
times  the  parents  are  as  much  to  blame  as  the  children,  for 
the  family  income  may  be  small  or  the  parents  too  lazy  to 
do  all  they  can  to  give  their  children  a  good  start  in  life. 

With  the  improvements  that  have  been  made  lately  in 


A  California  Grammar  School,  Calexico,  California. 

school  buildings  and  in  the  courses  of  study,  the  school  offers 
something  for  everybody.  No  one  ought  to  feel  that  he  has 
all  the  school  can  give  him  until  he  has  at  least  had  the 
benefit  of  a  full  high  school  course. 

Can  you  find  how  large  a  percentage  of  all  pupils  get  into  the 
high  school  and  how  many  graduate  from  it?  How  many  of  these 
go  on  to  college?  Use  figures  from  your  own  acquaintance  as  well 
as  others. 

74.  School  Revenues.  —  Most  of  the  money  needed  to 
keep  up  the  schools  is  paid  by  each  district  in  the  form  of  a 
local  tax.  This  is  frequently  the  largest  item  in  the  tax  bill, 
though  that  fact  is  nothing  against  it.    No  money  spent  by 


130  Training  the  Young  Citizen 

the  city  or  state  gets  more  returns,  even  though  they  may 
be  hard  to  measure  exactly.  In  Massachusetts  $24  out  of 
every  $25  spent  on  the  schools  comes  from  local  taxes,  and 
Massachusetts  has  excellent  schools.  Throughout  the  coun- 
try about  three  fourths  of  the  school  income  is  secured  from 
the  community  which  is  served  by  the  school. 

Many  states  appropriate  considerable  sums  from  the 
state  treasury  to  help  out  the  local  schools,  especially  if  there 
are  rural  or  other  needy  communities  which  would  other- 
wise find  it  hard  work  to  keep  their  schools  at  a  high  stand- 
ard. In  the  central  and  western  states  it  is  common  to  find 
certain  permanent  funds  definitely  set  aside,  whose  income 
is  used  to  help  support  the  schools  of  the  state.  These  are 
usually  derived  from  the  sale  of  public  land,  either  that 
which  was  set  apart  for  the  use  of  schools  when  the  town- 
ships were  first  surveyed  or  which  has  been  devoted  to  that 
use  since.  In  some  states  various  kinds  of  fines,  fees,  and 
the  like,  even  dog  licenses  and  liquor  licenses,  have  gone 
into  the  school  fund. 

In  the  entire  country  somewhat  over  $700,000,000  a  year 
is  spent  on  the  schools,  a  tremendous  sum,  —  about  a  third 
of  what  we  used  to  pay  for  intoxicating  liquor. 

How  much  do  the  schools  cost  in  your  community  and  state? 
Do  the  taxpayers  get  their  money's  worth?  How  does  your  state 
compare  with  others  in  its  support  of  public  schools? 

75.  Making  the  Schools  Useful.  —  How  can  we  make 
the  schools  most  useful  to  all  the  people?  That  question  is 
asked  more  often  than  any  other  to-day  by  those  who  are 
interested  in  them.  "  Reading  and  'ritin',  and  'rithmetic  " 
no  longer  are  the  only  subjects  in  the  course  of  study,  though 
they  must  always  be  given  prominence.  History  and 
civics,  music,  art,  science,  foreign  languages,  commercial 
subjects,  and  others  have  their  place,  in  many  cases  begin- 
ning in  the  early  years  of  the  course. 

Do  we  teach  too  many  things  in  the  schools  to-day  ? 


Making  the  Schools  Useful 


131 


Lately  a  great  deal  of  attention  has  been  given  to  sub- 
jects directly  useful  in  the  routine  duties  of  home  or  indus- 
try, such  as  cooking,  sewing,  woodwork,  metal  work,  and 
the  like.  Even  though  a  larger  percentage  of  the  high  school 
graduates  each  year  go  on  to  college,  we  have  come  to  feel 
that  the  pupils  who  cannot  go  to  college  must  be  given  just 
as  good  a  training  as  those  who  do,  for  as  long  a  time  as 


At  Work  in  the  School  Gardens. 

The  children  not  only  get  healthful  exercise,  but  have  flowers  or  vegetables 

to  repay  their  labor. 

they  are  in  the  schools.  Colleges  are  becoming  more  liberal, 
too,  and  many  of  them  are  now  willing  to  take  a  high  school 
graduate  who  has  made  a  good  record  in  any  course  which 
the  high  school  has  offered. 

Night  schools  for  the  benefit  of  those  over  sixteen  who 
have  to  work  in  the  daytime  are  common  in  every  large  city, 
and  a  special  appeal  is  made  to  foreigners  to  take  advantage 
of  these  schools  in  order  to  learn  English  and  otherwise 
qualify  themselves  to  be  American  citizens. 


132  Training  the  Young  Citizen 

Of  what  benefit  is  your  school  work  to  you  ?  Can  you  judge  the 
value  of  a  course  in  school  by  the  money  you  earn  afterward? 
What  changes  in  your  course  of  study  have  been  made  in  the  last 
few  years?    Do  you  recommend  any  others? 

76.  School  Buildings.  —  The  new  school  buildings,  as 
they  are  erected  by  old  and  new  communities  alike,  are 
made  as  substantial  and  attractive  as  possible.  Fireproof, 
well  ventilated,  well  lighted,  with  homelike  rooms,  the 
modern  schoolhouse  is  often  the  finest  building  in  the  com- 
munity.    It  is  possible  to  be  extravagant  in  putting  up  school 


Corridor  of  the  High  School,  El  Paso,  Texas. 

buildings  as  well  as  in  any  other  respect,  and  people  fre- 
quently complain  about  the  cost  of  the  schools  more  quickly 
than  about  almost  any  other  public  expense.  But  in  view  of 
all  the  school  does  to  make  the  community  a  better  place 
to  live  in,  the  people  ought  to  be  willing  to  pay  money 
generously  for  this  purpose,  providing  it  is  honestly  spent. 
The  school  buildings  ought  to  be  used  more  than  they  are. 
In  the  holding  of  public  meetings,  lectures,  social  gatherings, 
entertainments,  educational  and  civic  clubs,  and  every  other 
kind  of  public  assembly,  the  schoolhouses  can  be  made  of 
very  great  service,  to  all  citizens,  old  and  young. 


New  Features 


133 


It  is  wise,  too,  for  the  playgrounds  of  a  community  to  be 
managed  in  connection  with  the  schools  and  to  be  located, 
if  possible,  on  the  school  grounds.  We  have  learned  that 
the  right  kind  of  play  is  itself  part  of  our  education,  and  that 
if  we  train  the  mind  without  caring  for  the  body  we  are 
neglecting  the  foundation  of  all  health  and  sanity.  Gym- 
nasiums have  a  place  in  the  ideal  school  building  as  well  as 
book  closets. 


Open, Air  School  Room,  Jamaica  Plain,  Massachusetts. 

•or  the  benefit  of   children  with  tendencies   toward  tuberculosis, 
keep  comfortable  even  in  cold  weather. 


They 


77.  New  Features.  —  New  ideas  are  advanced  every 
hour,  we  might  almost  say,  for  managing  the  schools. 
Most  of  them  which  have  anything  whatever  of  good  in 
them  will  get  a  hearing  and  trial  somewhere.  Some  notions 
advanced  in  connection  with  the  school  are  freakish,  of 
course,  yet  many  ideas  which  every  one  now  accepts  as 
reasonable  were  once  laughed  at. 

The  schools  of  Gary,  Indiana,  have  been  very  widely 


134  Training  the  Young  Citizen 

advertised  in  late  years  because  their  superintendent,  having 
an  extraordinary  chance  to  build  a  whole  new  school  system 
exactly  as  he  wanted  it,  introduced  some  unusual  ideas. 
By  having  the  pupils  go  from  room  to  room,  being  in  a 
classroom  one  period  and  in  a  workshop  or  laboratory  or 
auditorium  or  on  the  playground  the  next,  it  is  possible  to 
handle  in  one  building  almost  twice  the  number  of  pupils 
that  can  be  accommodated  if  one  set  of  pupils  stays  in  one 
room  most  of  the  time.  These  schools  also  try  particularly 
hard  to  treat  each  pupil  as  an  individual  instead  of  as  merely 
one  of  a  crowd. 

No  other  community  needs  to  imitate  every  strange  idea 
that  has  been  put  into  practice  at  Gary,  but  the  "  platoon 
system  "  and  the  individual  treatment  of  pupils  are  being 
employed  in  very  many  places  with  as  great  success  as  at 
Gary,  even  if  they  are  not  so  widely  known. 

Do  teachers  deserve  pensions  and  large  salaries?  Do  parents 
take  enough  interest  in  schools?  What  other  agencies  than  the 
schools  furnish  opportunities  for  education? 


QUESTIONS 

Why  do  we  need  public  schools  ?  Why  should  all  taxpayers  help 
support  them  ?  What  advantage  or  disadvantage  is  there  in  public 
schools  as  compared  with  private  schools  ? 

Compare  European  school  systems  with  ours.  Why  is  there 
considerable  difference  in  our  public  schools  between  one  state  and 
another  ?  What  parts  of  our  public  school  system  have  grown  most 
rapidly  in  late  years?  Give  the  main  general  facts  about  state 
supervision  of  the  schools.  Explain  the  changes  in  the  "district" 
school  system. 

How  are  the  schools  in  a  district  managed  ?  Discuss  the  impor- 
tance of  the  teacher  and  the  qualifications  he  ought  to  have.  Is  the 
teacher's  work  appreciated  as  it  should  be? 

What  are  some  of  the  laws  about  school  attendance  ?  What  is  a 
continuation  school?  When  and  under  what  circumstances  is  it 
justifiable  for  a  child  to  drop  out  of  school?  Who  supplies  the 
money  to  maintain  the  schools?  From  what  sources  is  it  derived? 
How  much  does  it  amount  to? 


Special  Topics  135 

What  are  the  principal  subjects  taught  in  the  schools  to-day? 
Which  of  them  were  not  taught  when  your  father  was  in  school  ? 
your  grandfather? 

Is  it  justifiable  to  spend  large  sums  of  money  on  school  buildings? 
For  what  purposes  other  than  holding  classes  should  school  buildings 
be  used? 

Mention  some  of  the  new  features  in  the  arrangement  of  school 
programs.  Is  it  wise  to  teach  all  pupils  in  just  the  same  way? 
Can  you  think  of  any  real  improvements  that  could  be  made  in  the 
schools  that  you  know  about? 


SPECIAL   TOPICS 

Schools  of  a  Century  Ago. 

An  Eight-hour  School  Day. 

The  Gary  Schools. 

Pupil  Self-Government  in  Schools. 


Thus  far  we  have  been  speaking  of  the  civic  problems  which  must 
be  worked  out  mainly  by  each  community  in  accordance  with  its  own 
peculiar  needs.  Before  we  go  any  further  it  will  be  well  for  us  to  know 
how  the  officers  are  chosen  who  manage  our  public  affairs,  and  to 
learn  a  little  about  the  special  duties  of  the  most  important  of  them. 

Since  so  many  officials  are  elected  and  public  policies  decided  through 
the  agency  of  political  parties,  we  shall  first  explain  their  place  in  our 
activities  and  then  describe  briefly  the  framework  of  our  governments, 
national,  state,  and  local.  We  shall  take  them  up  in  that  order,  be- 
cause the  national  government  concerns  every  one,  no  matter  what 
city  or  state  he  lives  in.  The  national  government  can  then  serve  as 
a  pattern  with  which  to  compare  the  state  government  and  to  point  out 
the  differences  in  form  or  method  of  working. 

After  doing  this,  we  shall  take  up  several  problems  which  concern 
national  rather  than  local  policy,  and  with  which  the  local  community 
is  not  commonly  so  closely  identified  as  with  those  which  we  have  just 
been  considering. 


part  ni 

THE  MECHANISM  OF  OUR  GOVERNMENT 

CHAPTER   IX 

POLITICAL  PAKTIES  AND  ELECTIONS 


He  serves  his  party  best  who  serves  his  country  best. 

— Rutherford  B.  Hayes. 

The  people  can  overthrow  civil  evils  whenever  they  want  to,  and 
can  have  a  government  as  good  as  they  themselves  make  it  or  as  bad 
as  they  suffer  it  to  become.  —  Joseph  W.  Folk. 


78.  Reasons  for  Political  Parties.  —  No  voter  has  any- 
right  to  excuse  himself  for  neglecting  to  take  part  in  the 
nomination  and  election  of  public  officers  on  the  ground  that 
his  one  vote  does  not  count  for  much.  A  margin  of  just  one 
vote  has  elected  a  governor  in  one  of  our  states,  and  for 
local  offices  close  contests  are  common. 

Yet  it  is  true  that  one  man,  unless  he  is  exceptionally 
famous  or  influential,  is  not  usually  able  to  affect  the  opinions 
of  very  many  other  people  by  any  expression  of  his  own  views. 
When  thousands  of  persons  who  think  somewhat  alike 
combine  to  advocate  certain  principles  or  to  support  certain 
candidates  for  office,  the  chance  for  the  success  of  their 
opinions  or  candidates  is  multiplied  many  fold. 

It  is  as  true  in  politics  as  in  business  that  a  good  organiza- 
tion will  make  money  and  energy  count  for  much  more  than 
the  same  amount  could  accomplish  if  every  individual  worked 
by  himself.    A  political  party  may  be  defined  as  a  group  of 

136 


Party  Organization  137 

persons  of  similar  political  opinions,  who  have  organized  for 
the  purpose  of  making  their  principles  the  policy  of  the 
government. 

Of  course  all  members  of  a  party  do  not  exactly  agree  on 
everything,  but  the  very  fact  of  drawing  up  a  set  of  principles 
which  shall  be  known  as  the  party  "  platform  "  causes  men 
to  reason  more  clearly  about  their  own  views,  and  helps 
toward  a  better  understanding  of  public  questions.  The 
party  helps  at  least  to  bring  out  the  great  issues  of  the  day, 
if  there  are  any.  The  existence  of  more  than  one  party  is 
sometimes  beneficial,  too,  in  causing  the  persons  who  are  in 
office  to  be  more  careful  and  honest  than  they  otherwise 
might  be,  lest  they  should  afford  the  party  out  of  power  too 
much  to  talk  about  when  the  next  contest  for  office  comes 
around. 

What  have  been  some  of  the  great  issues  that  have  divided  na- 
tional parties? 

79.  Party  Organization.  —  If  we  grant  that  parties  are 
useful,  we  must  admit  the  necessity  of  party  organization, 
for  nothing  will  succeed  if  conducted  in  a  haphazard,  un- 
systematic way.  Every  great  party  has  its  national  com- 
mittee, made  up  of  one  person  from  each  state  in  the  Union. 
Besides  this,  it  has  a  state  committee  in  every  state,  a  county 
committee  in  every  county,  city  and  township  committees, 
and  often  even  ward  or  precinct  committees,  especially  in 
the  cities. 

Each  local  committee  is  responsible  for  arousing  interest 
in  the  party,  getting  the  voters  out  on  election  day,  and 
attending  to  the  welfare  of  the  party  generally.  These 
committees  are  usually  chosen,  when  they  are  permanently 
organized,  in  the  same  way  that  the  party  candidates  are 
nominated  for  office.  Committees  for  a  particular  campaign 
are  agreed  upon  in  some  way  by  the  leaders  of  the  party. 

The  party  platform  is  drawn  up  at  a  convention  of  party 
candidates  or  of  delegates  elected  specially  for  this  conven- 


138  Political  Parties  and  Elections 

tion.  Often  one  man  or  a  very  few  men  do  all  the  work  of 
preparing  the  platform,  and  the  convention  does  nothing 
but  go  through  the  form  of  consenting.  Sometimes  certain 
"  planks,"  or  statements  of  opinion,  which  the  party  leaders 
never  intend  to  carry  out  are  put  into  a  platform  in  the  hope 
of  catching  a  few  extra  votes.  Too  often,  as  it  has  been 
expressed,  a  platform  is  something  to  get  in  on,  and  not  to 
stand  on  after  you  get  in.  Such  an  attitude  is  dishonorable, 
and  voters  ought  to  rebuke  at  the  first  opportunity  a  candi- 
date or  a  party  that  is  guilt}?-  of  it. 

80.  Dangers  in  Parties.  —  The  ideal  way  to  manage  a 
party  would  be  to  have  its  affairs  handled  by  its  ablest  and 
strongest  men,  who  had  been  thoughtfully  chosen  for  that 
purpose  by  the  voters  of  the  party.  But  unfortunately  the 
men  of  high  character  who  could  do  such  work  well  are  so 
active  in  other  lines  that  they  cannot  take  time  to  do  the 
work  of  the  politician.  Besides,  the  rank  and  file  of  a  party 
do  not  think  as  carefully  as  they  should  about  the  motives 
and  ability  of  the  men  who  control  its  affairs.  As  a  result, 
party  "  bosses  "  who  care  for  nothing  but  their  own  advance- 
ment and  profit  often  get  the  machinery  of  the  party  into 
their  own  hands.  They  can  then  put  themselves  into  office 
without  trouble,  or,  as  they  sometimes  prefer  to  do,  put  in 
less  known  men  who  will  do  as  they  are  told  by  the  boss. 

The  habit  that  many  voters  have  of  supporting  blindly  any 
candidate  who  bears  their  party  name  is  the  mainstay  of  the 
power  of  the  boss.  Only  as  the  voters  learn  to  judge  a  candi- 
date on  his  own  merits  and  to  disregard  party  names  when 
they  mark  their  ballots,  can  we  hope  to  force  parties  to  select 
the  best  men  for  office  and  thus  to  get  really  good  government. 

If  there  is  a  political  boss  in  your  state,  how  did  he  get  his  power? 

As  it  stands  to-day,  an  officeholder  who  dares  to  defy  party 
authority  and  act  always  as  his  conscience  tells  him  is  often 
punished  for  his.  uprightness  by  being  denied  any  further 
political  honors.     Outrageous  though  such  a  situation  is,  the 


Nominations  139 

mass  of  the  voters  are  not  thoughtful  enough  to  discern  and 
reward  the  official  who  really  serves  the  people.  The  use 
of  national  party  names  in  state  and  local  elections  is  another 
unfortunate  custom  which  confuses  the  voter  and  makes  it 
much  harder  to  obtain  the  right  type  of  men  for  local  offices. 
Happily  we  have  seen  in  the  last  few  years  a  much  greater 
spirit  of  independence  than  formerly  prevailed.  Voting  a 
"  split"  ticket  —  that  is,  voting  for  a  list  of  candidates  for 
different  offices  who  do  not  all  belong  to  the  same  party  — 
has  become  reasonably  common.  But  we  have  still  long  to  go 
before  we  reach  the  time  when  a  candidate  is  judged  on  what 
he  has  done,  what  he  believes,  and  what  he  can  do,  rather 
than  by  the  party  tag  which  has  been  attached  to  him  by  a 
group  of  politicians. 

What  seem  to  you  to  be  the  principal  policies  advocated  by  the 
political  parties  of  to-day?  Is  there  any  advantage  in  having  a 
governor  of  the  same  party  as  the  majority  of  the  legislature? 
How  do  the  parties  rank  in  your  state?  Is  there  any  special  reason 
for  this? 

81.  Nominations.  —  For  a  great  many  years  the  most 
common  way  of  selecting  a  party's  candidates  for  office  was 
by  a  caucus  or  convention.  The  term  caucus  may  be  applied 
to  almost  any  kind  of  meeting  of  the  members  of  one  party 
within  a  limited  district.  It  may  include  those  in  a  certain 
precinct,  in  a  state  legislature,  or  in  Congress.  A  convention 
is  usually  an  assembly  of  persons  who  have  been  elected  by 
caucuses  or  by  other  means  to  meet  for  some  definite  pur- 
pose. We  still  use  the  convention  method  for  nominating  a 
presidential  candidate,  and  it  is  not  easy  to  see  how  we 
can  get  rid  of  it  entirely.  But  the  opinion  has  become  some- 
what general,  and  not  without  reason,  that  a  caucus  or  con- 
vention, on  account  of  the  small  number  of  its  members,  is 
too  easily  handled  by  political  schemers  and  "  wire-pullers." 

In  order  to  give  the  mass  of  the  voters  in  a  party  a  fair 
chance  to  say  something  about  its  nominations,  a  different 
plan,  known  as  the  direct  primary,  has  now  been  adopted 


140 


Political  Parties  and  Elections 


by  a  majority  of  the  states  and  will  doubtless  spread  to  the 
rest.  A  few  weeks  or  months  before  a  regular  election,  a 
primary  election  is  held,  which  is  conducted  by  the  same 
officers  and  in  about  the  same  way  as  the  regular  election. 
Persons  who  wish  to  be  the  candidates  of  a  certain  party 
for  office  are  required  to  present  a  petition  signed  by  a  certain 
number  of  voters,  and  a  party  ballot  is  prepared  for  each 

Democratic  Primary  Ballot 

1 6th  District,  1 1th  Ward,  City  of  Pittsburgh 

COUNTY  OF  ALLEGHENY.  STATE  OP  PENNSYLVANIA 
Primary  held  on  the  2 lit  day  of  September,  1915 


Prothonot.ry 

""•"»•»  »   ►•"" ••*  "a*  *,,*»*, 

»*.-.._  lu™, «■»-*.„  B™»,b 

Clerk  of  Court. 

T)-»~.  BradW,         bb  Ward.  PilHtonjb 

J»m*i    T      Flynn           . .  Ulllvak  Borougb 

County  Treasurer 

WVn  l  h-*, w*-*i  »~~tk 

».  J.  rUHj On*t»  Boroo,!, 

Cu.tr  Controller 

>V»-h* ,7*  Wart.  P.**.,.*    j_ 

County  Commiuioner 

»»— J.J.*-      »■"•'•  IW.* 

l*„,„»i,,H.I,.,»p,o»               Ml  «.«!.  ISnA.^ 

J.™  Ho»lah™ »*ta# 

Jo**  A    Mania                               iri  W  »r.l.  r.u.Uir«b 

job.  C   HrlkM              N«.h  I-.JW,  T—Up 

*.„*.,,  J    T«* >,«  Ward.  P..ub»„h 

joi.TW.k-..     .      .     .as*  w.,d.  Pi,„b»,«b 

RerUter  of  Will,  and  E»-Officio  Clerk 
of  the  Orphan.'  Court 

Da.  Hi  B   Blackburn Oakmonl  llorourn 

job.  M    H«.r, Slb  Ward.  PMabgra* 

Recorder  of  Deed. 

M     G .<-«*...                                    Dwr,  B»„«b 

M,cb«l  S.  )<„».. .                 ■<*  Ward.  P,l,.b.„b 

E 


A  Primary  Ballot. 

party.  This  contains  the  names  of  all  would-be  candidates 
for  that  party.  When  the  voter  arrives,  he  is  given  the  ballot 
for  the  party  to  which  he  is  supposed  to  belong,  and  is  allowed 
to  mark  his  preference  for  each  office. 

It  cannot  be  truthfully  claimed  that  all  the  improvement 
has  come  from  this  method  which  was  hoped  for,  but  at 
least  if  the  mass  of  the  voters  in  a  party  do  not  get  the  kind 
of  nominations  which  they  wish,  it  is  nobody's  fault  but 
their  own.  The  direct  primary  is  certainly  an  important 
step  toward  government  by  the  people. 


The  Campaign  141 

It  is  still  possible  for  a  person  to  get  his  name  on  the  ballot 
as  a  candidate  in  most  states,  even  after  the  primaries.  This 
is  done  by  securing  the  signatures  of  a  certain  number  of 
voters  on  a  petition  or  "  nomination  paper  "  and  entering 
the  contest  under  some  new  distinguishing  party  title. 
Usually  one  or  two  per  cent  of  the  total  vote  of  a  state  at 
the  last  election  is  required  to  secure  the  placing  of  a  party 
name  on  the  official  ballot  for  the  next  election.  Persons 
who  have  to  get  their  names  on  the  ballot  in  this  way  are 
under  a  decided  handicap  in  running  against  the  candidates 
of  organized  political  parties,  but  they  sometimes  succeed. 

82.  The  Campaign.  —  When  the  leading  parties  have 
adopted  their  platforms  and  made  their  nominations,  the 
race  is  fairly  on.  The  candidates  and  other  "  spell-binders  " 
address  public  meetings  or  "  rallies."  Advertisements,  news 
items,  and  editorials  appear  in  newspapers  and  magazines 
urging  the  people  to  vote  one  way  or  another. 

It  used  to  be  the  custom  more  than  now  to  hold  big  parades 
and  burn  a  great  deal  of  red  fire  and  otherwise  get  the  public 
excited  over  a  party  or  a  candidate,  as  in  the  famous  "  Log 
Cabin  and  Hard  Cider  "  campaign  of  1840.  But  with  the 
spread  of  general  intelligence  it  has  become  more  common 
to  use  methods  more  suitable  to  educated  men,  though  many 
of  the  arguments  put  forth  in  a  political  contest  would  sound 
foolish  if  employed  in  any  other  serious  business. 

In  every  national  election  and  in  the  majority  of  state 
elections,  the  outcome  is  determined  by  the  way  the  inde- 
pendent vote  is  cast.  The  particular  appeal  is  therefore 
made  to  those  voters  who  do  some  thinking  for  themselves, 
and  the  "  regular,"  who  would  vote  for  a  gray  mule  on  his 
own  party  ticket,  is  simply  urged  to  come  to  the  polls  on 
election  day. 

Most  of  the  methods  used  by  political  parties  are  honest 
and  honorable,  but  when  the  well-wishers  of  a  party  con- 
tribute generously  to  fill  its  treasury,  the  temptation  is 
sometimes  strong  to  use  the  party  funds  in  ways  that  are 


142  Political  Parties  and  Elections 

questionable  or  downright  dishonest.  Large  corporations 
formerly  gave  liberally  to  campaign  funds  in  the  hope  that 
the  party  which  received  their  gifts  would  allow  no  laws  to 
pass  which  would  hurt  the  corporations. 

To  prevent  the  dishonest  use  of  money,  not  only  have 
states  passed  laws  providing  heavy  penalties  for  bribery, 
but  there  are  both  state  and  national  acts  requiring  the 
publication  of  the  names  of  contributors  to  campaign  funds, 
and  forbidding  a  party  to  accept  gifts  from  corporations. 
Candidates  for  office  must  also  file  statements  showing  their 
own  receipts  and  expenditures. 

What,  in  your  opinion,  are  proper  and  improper  uses  of  money 
in  campaigns?  Who  contributes  this  money  and  why?  Would 
conditions  be  improved  if  campaign  expenses  were  paid  out  of 
the  state  or  national  treasury  ?  Who  should  be  punished,  the  man 
who  gives  a  bribe  or  who  accepts  one,  or  both  ? 

83.  Elections.  —  Presidential  elections  are  held  on  the 
Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  of  November  in  leap  years. 
Every  state  except  Maine  chooses  its  state  officers  and 
members  of  Congress  on  that  same  day  of  the  year,  when- 
ever such  officers  are  to  be  chosen.  In  many  states  elections 
for  city,  county,  or  other  local  officers  are  held  separately 
from  state  and  national  elections,  either  in  the  spring  or  in 
December,  or  in  alternate  years.  Such  an  arrangement 
helps  to  relieve  the  evil  of  mixing  state  and  national  politics. 
There  is  no  general  rule  governing  the  time  of  holding  primary 
elections.     Each  state  settles  that  for  itself. 

Communities  containing  more  than  a  few  voters  are 
generally  divided  into  precincts  or  election  districts.  In 
each  district  there  is  usually  a  judge,  with  two  or  more 
inspectors  and  ballot  clerks,  chosen  by  the  voters  of  the  dis- 
trict and  representing  more  than  one  party.  The  whole 
American  electi  >n  system  really  depends  upon  the  honesty  of 
these  small  election  boards,  for  if  they  are  too  ignorant  or 
corrupt  to  count  the  ballots  correctly,  there  is  not  much 
use  in  holding  an  election  at  all.    Each  party  may  have 


Elections  143 

"  watchers  "  at  the  polls,  who  can  "  challenge  "  persons  whom 
they  suspect  of  not  being  entitled  to  vote  and  can  require 
them  to  prove  their  right. 

It  is  pleasant  to  be  able  to  say  that  "  stuffing  the  ballot 
box  "  and  other  forms  of  cheating  at  elections  are  now,  taking 
the  country  as  a  whole,  exceptional  instances,  and  are  no 
longer  excused  on  the  ground  that  anything  goes  in  politics 


Copyright,  Underwood  &  Underwood 

President  Wilson  Casting  His  Ballot. 
Princeton,  N.  J. 

as  long  as  our  side  wins.  We  should  not  feel,  on  the  other 
hand,  that  all  political  workers  can  be  trusted  without  watch- 
ing. There  are  still  dishonest  men  and  men  who  cannot 
resist  temptation. 

The  polls  are  open  practically  all  of  election  day,  although 
the  exact  hours  vary  in  different  states.  Sunrise  to  sunset, 
9  a.m.  to  5  p.m.,  7  a.m.  to  7  p.m.,  are  examples.  Imme- 
diately after  the  polls  close,  the  election  officers  begin  to 
count  the  votes.    If  the  ballot  contains  the  names  of  many 


144  Political  Parties  and  Elections 

candidates,  constitutional  amendments  to  be  voted  on,  and 
the  like,  the  work  is  long  and  tiresome. 

After  finishing  the  count,  the  officials  send  or  take  the 
returns  to  the  county  or  state  officer  as  required  by  law 
for  the  purpose  of  tabulating  and  officially  announcing 
them.  Usually  the  result  of  a  presidential  or  other  im- 
portant election  is  known  on  election  night  through  esti- 
mates based  on  the  early  returns  gathered  by  newspapers, 
but  if  the  vote  in  a  state  is  close  and  the  outcome  depends 
on  the  vote  in  some  country  districts,  it  may  be  days  before 
the  result  can  be  stated  with  certainty. 

Bound  the  voting  precinct  in  which  you  live.  In  what  building 
is  the  voting  done?  How  does  the  precinct  generally  go  politically? 

84.  Qualifications  of  Voters.  —  We  should  understand 
clearly  that  the  national  constitution  has  little  to  say 
about  who  shall  vote  in  any  state.  The  14th  amendment 
declares  that  if  states  deny  the  vote  to  any  male  citizen  over 
21  years  of  age  for  any  reason  except  the  commission  of 
some  crime,  their  representation  in  Congress  shall  be  cut 
down ;  but  by  various  tricks  this  provision  is  evaded,  and 
Congress  has  never  dared  to  enforce  the  penalty.  The  states 
do  almost  exactly  as  they  please  in  the  matter,  and  the  quali- 
fications required  of  voters  vary  considerably. 

The  ownership  of  property  was  once  demanded  in  most  of 
the  states  as  an  essential,  but  that  has  disappeared  almost 
everywhere,  as  inconsistent  with  the  spirit  of  democracy. 
An  age  requirement  of  21  years  is  universal.  United  States 
citizenship  is  necessary  in  most  states,  though  some  allow 
an  alien  to  vote  who  has  declared  his  intention  of  becoming 
a  citizen.  A  residence  rule  for  the  state  and  for  the  voting 
district  prevails  in  most  states,  and  several  demand  the  pay- 
ment of  some  kind  of  tax.  Some  states  require  the  ability 
to  read  and  write  or  to  understand  the  constitution  of  the 
United  States  or  the  state. 

Do  you  favor  an  educational  test  for  voters? 


Woman  Suffrage 


145 


In  some  states,  particularly  those  with  large  cities,  voters 
must  go  personally  before  a  registration  board  and  enroll 
their  names,  if  they  wish  to  vote.  Some  such  rule  as  this 
is  about  the  only  way  to  prevent  the  "  padding  "  of  the  voting 
lists  with  fraudulent  names  and  voting  more  than  once  by 
the  same  person  —  "  repeating/'  as  it  is  called.  In  country 
districts  and  small  towns  such  fraud  cannot  so  easily  be 
committed,  and  there  the  enrollment  of  voters  is  made  by 
the  assessors  or  other  local  officers. 

Make  up  a  complete  and  exact  list  of  requirements  for  voters 
which  you  would  consider  fair  and  reasonable.  How  does  this  com- 
pare with  the  laws  of  your  own  state? 

85.  Woman  Suffrage.  —  For  many  years  a  question  much 
argued  was  whether  women  should  be  given  the  ballot  on 
the  same  terms  as  men. 
Wyoming  was  virtually 
the  pioneer  in  doing  so, 
for  as  far  back  as  1869, 
long  before  it  became  a 
state,  it  allowed  women 
to  vote.  A  few  women, 
like  Susan  B.  Anthony 
and  Lucy  Stone,  urged 
forcefully  that  it  was  un- 
fair to  limit  the  ballot  to 
men,  but  for  a  long  time 
they  made  little  headway, 
and  the  question  was 
treated  as  a  joke  by  many 
people. 

But  when  the  women 
took  hold  nobly  in  the  va- 
rious kinds  of  work  made  necessary  by  the  Great  War,  it 
seemed  a  matter  of  simple  justice  to  recognize  their  right  to 
a  voice  in  governing  the  nation.  In  June,  1919,  the  last  steps 
were  taken  by  Congress  in  proposing  an  amendment  to  the 
national  Constitution  requiring  the  states  to  give  women 


Susan  B.  Anthony. 


146 


Political  Parties  and  Elections 


equal  voting  rights  with  men.  President  Wilson  strongly- 
urged  its  adoption,  and  the  leaders  of  both  the  great  politi- 
cal parties  strove  to  gain  votes  by  hurrying  the  governors 
and  legislatures  of  states  to  accomplish  its  ratification. 
In  August,  1920,  after  a  bitter  fight,  the  southern  state  of 
Tennessee  was  recorded  as  the  necessary  thirty-sixth  state 
to  bring  this  about,  so  that  in  the  presidential  election  of 
that  fall  the  women  were  able  to  vote  all  over  the  Union. 
Would  there  be  any  advantage  in  having  the  right  to  vote  regu- 
lated by  the  national  government  rather  than  the  states?  What  is 
your  opinion  of  woman  suffrage  ? 

To  vote  for  a  person,  stamp  a  cross  (X)  in  the  square  at  the  right  of  the  name 


REPUBLICAN  TICKET 

DEMOCRATIC  TICKET 

SOCIALIST  TICKET 

For  U.S.  Senator 
H.  W.  JOHNSON 

For  U.S.  Senator 
W.  W.  PATTON 

For  U.S.  Senator 
A.  B.  COLE 

For  Representative  in 
Congress 

R.  W.  HARBISON 

For  Representative  in 
Congress 

Wm.  KETTNER 

For  Representative  in 
Congress 

E.  W.  ROBBINS 

For  Secretary  of  State 
F.  C.  JORDAN 

For  Secretary  of  State 
L.  P.  HOLMES 

For  Secretary  of  State 
C.  S.  TOLMIN 

For  Comptroller 
J.  S.  CHAMBERS 

For  Comptroller 
H.  F.  RICHARDS 

For  Comptroller 
R.  B.  HUNT 

For  Attorney-General 
U.  S.  WEBB 

For  Attorney-General 
F.  R.  WLLKINS 

For  Attorney-General 
M.  F.  COSTELLO 

"  Party  Column  "  Ballot. 

A  form  like  this  has  been  used  by  California,  Vermont,  and  several  other 
states,  though  some  of  them  have  abandoned  it.  The  old  style  New  York 
and  Indiana  ballot  had  also  a  picture  of  some  kind  at  the  top  of  each  column 
as  a  distinguishing  mark,  with  a  place  indicated  where  a  voter  could  vote 
for  an  entire  party  ticket  by  making  only  one  cross. 

86.  Forms  of  Ballots. — At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century  people  usually  voted  by  word  of  mouth  and  in 
some  states  the  polls  were  kept  open  for  several  days.  In 
place  of  that  method,  the  use  of  a  written  or  printed  ballot 
was  later  introduced,  each  political  party  supplying  its  own. 


Forms  of  Ballots 


147 


Although  this  was  an  improvement  over  the  former  practice, 
it  was  still  too  open  and  permitted  fraud  too  easily. 

Beginning  with  about  1890  the  states  have  adopted  some 
form  of  the  system  of  voting  previously  used  in  Australia 


FIRST  COLUMN 

This  Column  is  for 
Straight  Party  Votes 


To  vote  a  straight  party  ticket,  mark  a  cross  (X)  in  the 
square  in  the  first  column,  opposite  the  name  of  the  party 
of  your  choice. 

A  cross  mark  in  the  square  opposite  the  name  of  any  can- 
didate indicates  a  vote  for  that  candidate. 


DEMOCRATIC 

WASHINGTON 

REPUBLICAN 

SOCIALIST 

PROHIBITION 

KEYSTONE 

United  States  Senator 
[Vote  for  one) 

E.  L.  Obvis          Dem. 

P.  C.  Knox 

Rep. 
Key. 

C.  W.  Ervin        Soc. 

State  Treasurer 
{Vote  for  one) 

J.  M.  Crameb      Dem.- 

H.  M.  Kephabt 

Rep. 
Key. 



Chas.  Sehl          Soc. 

Representative  in  Congress 
{Vote  for  one) 

M.  C.  Kelly 

Dem. 

Wash. 

Pro. 

W.  H.  Coleman 

Rep. 

Key. 

Representative  in  the 

General  Assembly 

{Vote  for  two) 

C.  H.  Clifford   Dem. 

G.  F.  Midgeley  Dem. 

C.  C.  Baldridge  Rep. 

J.  R.  Wylib          Rep. 

A  Pennsylvania  Ballot. 

and  therefore  called  the  Australian  ballot.  The  cardinal 
features  of  this  plan  are  that  (1)  the  names  of  the  candidates 
of  all  parties  are  printed  on  one  ballot,  which  the  voter  must 
mark  in  some  way ;  that  (2)  the  state  or  county  authorities 
supply  the  ballots ;  and  (3)  that  the  marking  is  done  in  a 
private  booth,  so  that  no  one  can  see  how  the  voter  marks 
his  ballot. 


148  Political  Parties  and  Elections 

Bribery  is  discouraged  by  this  system,  because  the  briber 
cannot  be  sure  that  a  bribed  voter  will  mark  his  ballot  as  he 
agrees  to.  Independent  voting  is  promoted,  too,  because 
men  who,  for  fear  of  losing  their  jobs  or  incurring  the  ill  will 
of  some  prominent  person,  would  not  dare  to  vote  openly  as 
their  conscience  told  them,  may  have  the  courage  to  mark  the 
ballot  in  secret  in  the  way  that  they  believe  to  be  right. 


' 

Utf  of  Candidates 

((ommmturalih  of  JWnssacIuisrtls, 

nominated,   to   bo   voted   for   In  the  Town  of   EastKampton,  November  6,  1900 

SPECIMEN    BALLOT. 

PkuJ»  fa  »ilfoB)  teUual  tur 

4  unfcbm  «  ip                          i  malm,  m  huadreH  dollar.. 

| 

i 

Is^r^^^iKu 

- 

...! 

A  Massachusetts  Ballot. 

There  are  several  styles  of  arranging  the  names  of 
candidates  on  the  ballot.  One  system  widely  used  puts  all 
the  candidates  of  one  party  in  one  column  and  allows  a 
voter  to  vote  for  all  these  candidates  by  marking  a  cross  at 
the  head  of  the  column.  If  he  wishes  to  "  split  "  his  ticket, 
he  can  make  a  cross  opposite  the  individual  names  of  candi- 
dates, taking  some  of  them  from  one  column  and  some  from 
another.  The  so-called  Massachusetts  ballot  groups  all  the 
candidates  for  an  office  together,  arranging  their  names  in 


Initiative,  Referendum,  and  Recall       149 

alphabetical  order.  There  is  no  "  party  square,"  and  a 
voter  must  mark  for  each  office  separately.  This  form  of 
ballot  requires  the  most  intelligence  to  use  and  encourages 
independent  voting  more  than  any  other  form.  It  has 
been  adopted  by  several  other  states  than  Massachusetts. 
The  systems  in  vogue  in  the  other  states  are  either  a  com- 
promise between  these  two  methods  or  a  variation  of  one 
of  them.  Voting  machines  have  been  used  in  a  few  places, 
but  they  have  not  yet  become  generally  popular. 

87.  Initiative,  Referendum,  and  Recall.  —  With  the 
spread  of  the  spirit  of  democracy  it  is  only  natural  that 
people  should  like  to  have  some  part  in  the  making  of  laws 
as  well  as  in  the  election  of  officers.  Since  the  New  England 
town  meeting  is  suitable  for  only  a  comparatively  small 
community,  a  kind  of  substitute  which  can  be  used  on  a 
much  wider  scale  has  been  employed.  This  has  found  con- 
siderable favor,  especially  in  the  West,  where  people  are 
not  afraid  of  a  thing  merely  because  it  is  new,  and  are  willing 
to  try  experiments.  This  plan  is  not  an  American  invention, 
for  the  initiative  and  referendum,  as  they  are  called,  have 
been  in  use  in  Switzerland,  New  Zealand,  and  elsewhere 
for  some  time. 

The  initiative  is  the  right  given  to  a  certain  percentage  of 
the  voters  to  draw  up  a  law  or  force  the  law-making  body  to 
draw  up  one,  to  be  submitted  to  popular  vote.  The  sub- 
mitting of  a  measure  to  popular  vote  before  it  is  to  go  into 
effect  is  known  as  the  referendum. 

Referendum  votes  on  laws,  constitutional  amendments, 
and  the  like,  are  generally  taken  at  the  time  of  regular  elec- 
tions, and  the  measures  to  be  voted  on  are  printed  on  the 
regular  ballot.  Special  referendum  elections,  however,  are 
sometimes  held.  Several  states  make  use  of  the  referendum 
in  matters  such  as  constitutional  amendments  and  laws  of 
unusual  importance,  even  though  they  do  not  permit  the 
use  of  the  initiative;  but  the  initiative  would  not  be  of 
much  use  without  the  referendum. 


150  Political  Parties  and  Elections 

Experience  seems  to  show  that  the  use  of  these  political 
instruments  should  not  be  made  too  easy,  lest  a  small 
group  of  "  cranks  "  might  bother  the  voters  too  frequently 
by  compelling  them  to  vote  on  hasty  measures  which  they 
might  not  understand  at  all.  But  it  is  well  to  have  these 
weapons  available  when  a  legislature  neglects  to  pass  laws 
which  the  people  really  want.  The  initiative  and  the  ref- 
erendum are  likely  to  promote  public  interest  and  encourage 
intelligent  thought  on  the  part  of  voters. 

Is  a  voter  likely  to  act  more  wisely  in  voting  on  a  law  than  in 
choosing  a  member  of  the  legislature  to  do  it  for  him? 

The  recall  is  often  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  initia- 
tive and  referendum,  though  there  is  no  necessity  for  doing  so. 
The  recall  permits  a  certain  percentage  of  the  voters,  by  draw- 
ing up  a  petition,  to  force  an  officeholder  to  submit  to  a 
special  election  before  the  end  of  the  term  for  which  he  was 
elected.  The  result  of  the  election  determines  whether  he 
shall  serve  out  the  term  or  give  way  to  some  one  else. 

It  is  open  to  the  criticism  that  it  may  make  voters  less 
careful  about  electing  their  officers  in  the  first  place  and 
may  be  employed  to  make  trouble  for  a  good  official  whose 
duty  had  forced  him  to  do  a  thing  that  was  unpopular  with 
a  certain  class.  But  since  the  process  of  impeachment  is 
so  difficult  to  use,  it  is  possible  that  the  recall,  if  safeguarded 
so  that  it  could  not  be  used  recklessly,  would  be  a  desirable 
weapon  to  have  at  hand  in  case  of  an  emergency. 

Many  people  believe  that  the  voters  should  elect  only  a  few 
officers  and  should  hold  them  responsible  for  appointing  the  rest. 
This  idea  is  called  the  short  ballot.  What  do  you  think  of  it  ?  If 
it  should  be  instituted  in  your  community,  what  officers  would  you 
have  elected? 

Another  idea  is  that  of  the  preferential  ballot.  This  permits  a 
voter  to  indicate  his  second,  third,  and  perhaps  further,  choices 
among  the  candidates  for  an  office.  In  making  up  the  returns  such 
votes  are  combined  with  a  candidate's  "  first  choice  "  votes  in  some 
prescribed  manner.    How  do  you  like  it? 


Special  Topics  151 

In  some  places  if  a  voter  may  vote  for  two  or  three  persons  for  a 
certain  office,  he  is  allowed  to  cast  all  his  votes  for  one  candidate. 
This  is  called  cumulative  voting.  It  aims  to  secure  proportional  rep- 
resentation, so  that  all  the  offices  may  not  go  to  the  most  numerous 
party. 

QUESTIONS 

Explain  how  parties  are  managed.  Define  platform;  boss; 
caucus ;   convention. 

What  does  nomination  mean?  Explain  direct  primaries.  In 
whatjways  are  they  better  than  the  convention  system  for  nominat- 
ing candidates  ? 

What  is  a  campaign  ?  How  is  it  and  how  should  it  be  conducted! 
Give  your  opinion  about  the  use  of  money  in  trying  to  elect  people 
to  office. 

When  are  elections  held?  Describe  the  holding  of  an  election. 
Visit  an  election  when  it  is  under  way  if  you  can.  How  and  when 
may  we  know  what  candidates  are  successful? 

Who  has  the  right  to  vote  in  your  state?  Who  decides  this? 
How  much  does  the  national  government  have  to  say  about  the 
matter  ?  What  is  registration  and  why  do  we  have  it  ?  Is  there  any 
reason  why  women  should  not  vote?  Where  do  they  have  the 
ballot  (see  map,  page  145)  ? 

Explain  the  Australian  ballot  and  state  its  merits  over  the 
methods  of  voting  formerly  used.  Compare  the  forms  of  ballots 
shown  or  explained  in  the  text  and  give  your  opinion  as  to  which  is 
best.  Which  of  these  forms  is  most  nearly  like  that  used  in  your 
own  state? 

Define  initiative;  referendum;  recall;  short  ballot;  preferential 
ballot.    Give  your  opinion  of  each  of  them. 


SPECIAL  TOPICS 

How  Political  Parties  Came  into  Existence  in  the  United  States. 

What  the  Parties  of  To-day  Represent. 

Famous  Presidential  Campaigns. 

The  Story  of  Woman  Suffrage,  at  Home  and  Abroad. 

A  debate  on  the  Initiative,  Referendum,  Recall,  or  the  Short 
Ballot. 

A  debate  on  the  question :  Resolved,  that  elections  for  state  or 
local  offices  should  be  on  a  non-partisan  basis. 


CHAPTER  X 

HOW  OUB  NATIONAL  LAWS  ABE  MADE 


Men  are  never  so  likely  to  settle  a  question  rightly  as  when  they 
discuss  it  freely.  —  Macaulay. 


88.    Making   Our   National   Constitution.  —  At  the  close 
of  the  Revolution  by  which  the  independence  of  the  United 

States  was  secured,  the 
central  government  was 
conducted  under  the 
Articles  of  Confedera- 
tion. These  went  into 
effect  in  1781  after  all 
the  original  thirteen 
states  had  accepted 
them.  This  confedera- 
tion was  so  weak  and 
inefficient  that  intelli- 
gent men  such  as  Wash- 
ington, Hamilton,  and 
Franklin,  saw  that  a 
stronger  government 
must  be  established  if 
the  nation  was  to  live. 

So,  at   a   memorable 
convention  held  in  Phila- 

Independence  Hall.  ,  ,   ,  .        .         mar 

delphia     m     1787    our 
In  this  famous  building  in  Philadelphia  , .        ,  ^       , . 

the   convention   met  which  framed  our      P^sent  national  Constl- 
national  Constitution.  tution  was  drawn  up.    It 

152 


The  Senators  153 

contained  very  little  that  was  wholly  new.  But  its  makers 
showed  wonderful  judgment  in  selecting  the  best  features  of 
the  English  government  and  the  constitutions  and  laws  of  the 
states.  Guided  by  their  own  common  sense,  they  combined 
these  so  skillfully  that  only  eighteen  additions  or  changes 
have  been  needed  in  over  a  century  and  a  quarter  of  mar- 
velous growth  and  development .  And  many  of  these '  *  amend- 
ments "  were  made  right  at  the  start,  before  it  was  certain 
that  they  would  be  needed  at  all. 

One  would  be  foolish  to  imagine  that  our  form  of  govern- 
ment is  so  nearly  perfect  that  it  cannot  be  improved,  but 
nevertheless  we  can  take  just  pride  in  the  thought  that  the 
United  States  Constitution  and  government  have  served  as 
worthy  examples  for  other  peoples  who  were  struggling  for 
better  things. 

Could  tyranny  ever  exist  in  this  country?  Is  a  majority  vote 
always  cast  on  the  right  side  ? 

89.  Congress.  —  The  law-making  branch  of  our  national 
government  is  known  as  the  Congress,  and  consists  of  two 
houses,  the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives.  There 
are  several  reasons  why  our  constitution-makers  provided 
two  houses  instead  of  one. 

The  British  Parliament,  with  its  House  of  Lords  and 
House  of  Commons,  was  to  some  extent  looked  upon  as  a 
pattern,  though  there  are  very  many  respects  in  which  no 
likeness  exists  between  those  two  bodies  and  the  divisions 
of  our  Congress.  Most  of  the  states  also  had  two  houses  in 
their  legislatures.  The  opinion  prevailed,  too,  that  it  was 
well  to  have  two  houses  so  that  one  might  check  the  other 
and  prevent  the  passage  of  some  laws  which  might  not  be 
necessary  or  desirable. 

90.  The  Senators.  —  The  voters  in  each  state  elect  two 
senators  for  a  term  of  six  years.  In  order  to  prevent  great 
changes  in  the  membership  of  the  Senate,  and  to  keep  it  a 
kind  of  conservative  body,  it  is  provided  that  the  senators 


154      How  Our  National  Laws  are  Made 

shall  be  grouped  into  three  classes,  and  the  terms  of  each 
class  shall  expire  two  years  apart.  By  this  plan  only  one 
senator  from  a  state  is  elected  at  one  time,  except  when  a 
new  state  comes  into  the  Union  or  when  an  unexpected 
vacancy  occurs  through  death  or  resignation.  At  least 
two  thirds  of  the  senators  will  always  have  had  two  or  more 
years'  experience  in  the  office. 

Each  senator  must  be  at  least  thirty  years  old,  a  citizen 


A  Fairly-divided  State. 

of  the  United  States  for  nine  years,  and  a  resident  of  the 
state  which  he  represents. 

How  many  senators  were  there  in  1789?  how  many  to-day? 
Who  are  the  senators  from  your  state,  and  when  do  their  terms 
expire? 


91.  The  Representatives.  —  The  number  of  representa- 
tives from  a  state  depends  upon  its  population.  Each  state 
has  at  least  one.  New  York  has  the  largest  number  —  at 
present  forty-three.  The  total  membership  now  is  435. 
A  census  of  the  whole  country  is  taken  every  tenth  year 
(1910,  1920,  etc.),  and  after  the  count  of  the  population  is 
finished,  Congress  passes  an  "  apportionment  "  law,  saying 
how  many  representatives  each  state  shall  have  for  the 


The  Representatives 


155 


next  ten  years.     The  proportion  after  1922  will  be  about  one 
representative  for  each  219,000  people. 

The  state  legislature  is  supposed  to  divide  the  state  into 
as  many  districts  as  there  are  representatives  to  be  chosen, 
and  then  the  voters  in 
each  district  elect  a  rep- 
resentative. If  a  new 
apportionment  adds  to 
the  number  of  represent- 
atives from  a  state,  but 
the  legislature  neglects 
to  make  new  districts, 
the  extra  member  or 
members  are  chosen  by 
the  voters  of  the  whole 
state.  A  member  so 
elected  is  known  as  Con- 
gressman-at-large. 

The  fairest  way  to  dis- 
trict a  state  is  to  make 
the  districts  nearly  equal 
in  population  and  com- 
posed of  compact  terri- 
tory. But  legislatures 
sometimes  try  to  give  a 
certain  party  control  of 
more  districts  than  it  deserves  by  making  these  districts  of 
queer  shapes  and  uneven  population.  Somebody  invented 
the  word  "  gerrymander  "  to  apply  to  this  practice.  Happily 
the  gerrymander  is  less  common  than  formerly. 

Make  a  map  that  will  show  whether  your  state  is  gerrymandered. 

In  order  to  bring  the  House  somewhat  nearer  the  people 
and  to  permit  the  frequent  expression  of  public  opinion,  the 
terms  of  the  representatives  are  shorter  and  their  qualifica- 
tions lower  than  those  of  senators.     The  term  is  two  years, 


A  Gerrymandered  State. 


156      How  Our  National  Laws  are  Made 

and  theoretically  the  entire  House  could  be  changed  at 
once.  Its  members  must  be  twenty-five  years  of  age, 
citizens  of  the  United  States  for  seven  years,  and  must  live 
in  the  state  from  which  they  are  elected. 

By  custom  they  generally  do  live  in  the  districts  which 
they  represent,  though  this  is  not  necessary.  The  English 
custom  by  which  a  district  may  elect  anybody  from  any- 
where to  represent  it  has  the  advantage  of  keeping  the  strong 
men  of  all  parties  in  office  all  the  time,  but  the  idea  has  never 
been  popular  in  this  country. 

How  many  representatives  does  your  state  send  to  Congress? 
Name  those  who  represent  districts  near  you.  What  political 
ideas  do  they  stand  for  ?  Is  there  any  valid  objection  to  the  English 
custom  in  regard  to  the  residence  of  representatives? 

Up  to  1917  only  one  woman  had  been  elected  to  Congress.  Is 
there  any  reason  why  women  should  not  be  chosen? 

92.  Special  Powers  of  the  Houses.  —  In  addition  to  the 
general  duty  of  law-making,  which  both  houses  share  almost 
equally,  each  house  is  given  by  the  Constitution  certain 
special  powers  in  which  the  other  has  no  part.  In  impeach- 
ment proceedings,  for  example,  the  House  of  Representatives 
has  the  right  to  bring  formal  charges  against  a  federal  officer 
whom  it  believes  to  have  been  guilty  of  misconduct  such  as 
to  demand  his  removal  from  office ;  but  after  the  impeach- 
ment charges  have  been  brought  by  the  House,  the  duty  of 
trying  the  accused  official  and  deciding  upon  his  guilt  or  inno- 
cence rests  with  the  Senate  alone.  A  two-thirds  vote  of 
the  Senate  is  necessary  to  secure  conviction. 

In  case  no  candidate  for  president  or  vice  president  secures 
a  majority  of  votes  of  the  presidential  electors  (§  102),  the 
Senate  chooses  the  Vice  President,  and  the  House,  the 
President. 

Only  the  House  may  introduce  bills  for  raising  revenue 
to  carry  on  the  government,  on  the  theory  that  the  people 
can  control  the  House  more  directly  and  that  the  people 


Sessions  of  Congress  157 

should  determine  for  themselves  as  far  as  possible  when 
and  how  they  should  be  taxed.  But  this  power  does  not 
really  amount  to  very  much,  for  the  Senate  may  amend 
revenue  bills  the  same  as  any  other  bills  coming  from  the 
House,  and  it  sometimes  amends  them  out  of  all  likeness  to 
the  original. 

In  two  matters  the  Senate  alone  has  the  power  to  act.  Most 
appointments  to  office  which  the  President  makes  must  have 
the  approval  of  the  Senate,  which  gains  thereby  considerable 
political  influence.  Treaties,  which  are  made  under  the 
President's  direction,  must  also  be  ratified  by  the  Senate. 
In  this  case  a  two-thirds  vote  is  needed.  Much  weight  in 
determining  the  foreign  policy  of  the  country  may  through 
this  means  be  exercised  by  the  Senate. 

In  one  sense  it  would  be  incorrect  to  speak  of  one  house 
as  being  more  powerful  than  the  other,  since  each  may  and 
often  does  defeat  bills  that  have  been  passed  by  the  other. 
But  the  Senate  always  has  a  larger  proportion  of  experienced 
politicians  in  its  membership ;  it  has  a  more  permanent  and 
complete  organization;  and  its  members,  being  fewer  in 
number,  have  a  better  chance  of  becoming  known  individually 
to  the  whole  country.  For  these  and  other  reasons  the 
Senate  has  acquired  somewhat  greater  prestige  than  the 
House.  If  the  two  houses  disagree  over  some  important 
matter  the  Senate  more  often  than  the  House  gets  its  own 
way  in  the  end. 

93.  Sessions  of  Congress.  —  Regular  elections  for 
members  of  Congress  are  held  in  November  of  the  even 
years,  and  persons  chosen  at  that  time  begin  their  terms  on 
the  4th  of  March  following.  The  life  of  a  single  Congress  is 
reckoned  from  March  4  of  an  odd  year  until  March  4  two 
years  later,  since  the  Representatives  are  elected  for  that 
period  only.  A  Congress  is  referred  to  by  number,  reckoned 
by  counting  the  years  from  1789  until  the  year  when  the 
term  of  its  Representatives  expires,  and  dividing  by  two. 

During  the  life  of  a  Congress  two  regular  sessions  are  held. 


158      How  Our  National  Laws  are  Made 


One,  known  as  the  long  session,  begins  on  the  first  Monday 
of  December  of  the  odd  years,  and  lasts  until  the  houses  get 
ready  to  adjourn  —  generally  during  the  following  spring  or 
summer.  The  short  session  begins  on  the  first  Monday  of 
December  in  the  even  years,  and  must  end  on  the  next  4th 
of  March  at  noon,  as  the  terms  of  its  Representatives  expire 


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The  Capitol  at  Washington. 

then.     The  session  beginning  December  4,  1916,  was  there- 
fore the  second  regular,  or  short  session  of  the  64th  Congress. 

Is  there  any  sense  in  not  having  Congress  assemble  until  the 
December  after  they  take  office? 

The  President  sometimes  calls  Congress  together  in  a 
special  session,  as  he  has  the  right  to  do  whenever  he  thinks 
the  public  interest  demands  it.  He  may  also  summon  the 
Senate  alone  for  brief  special  sessions  when  treaties  or 
appointments  are  to  be  considered,  as  the  House  has  nothing 
directly  to  do  with  these. 


Government  and  Rules  of  Congress       159 

94.  Government  and  Rules  of  Congress.  —  Each  house 
is  the  judge  of  the  qualifications  and  conduct  of  its  own 
members.  If  a  person  is  a  known  lawbreaker,  or  if  his 
election  was  obtained  by  dishonest  methods,  he  may  be 
refused  admission.  If  two  persons  claim  to  have  been  elected 
to  the  same  seat,  the  house  which  is  concerned  decides  whom 
to  admit.  Perhaps  this  matter  would  have  been  better  left 
to  the  courts,  for  now  the  vote  in  such  cases  is  generally  along 
party  lines.  Each  house  may  also  reprimand  or  even  expel 
a  member  for  improper  conduct.  But  a  two-thirds  vote  is 
required  for  expulsion,  so  as  to  make  it  unlikely  that  a  member 
will  be  expelled  merely  to  secure  party  advantage. 

A  majority  of  members  is  necessary  to  make  up  a  quorum 
—  that  is,  the  number  who  must  be  present  in  order  to  carry 
on  business  legally.  If  a  sufficient  number  are  not  on  hand, 
those  who  are  present  may  have  the  absent  members  brought 
in.  In  the  House,  too,  the  presiding  officer  counts  every 
member  as  present  if  he  is  in  the  hall,  even  though  he  does 
not  vote. 

Each  house  keeps  a  journal,  or  official  record,  of  its  pro- 
ceedings, and  has  it  printed  in  that  extraordinary  publication 
known  as  the  Congressional  Record.  This  is  supposed  to  be 
a  word  for  word  account  of  everything  said  in  the  sessions, 
and  parts  of  it  may  be  printed  separately  and  sent  out  free 
of  postage.  Congressmen  often  abuse  this  privilege  by 
getting  "  leave  to  print  "  or  to  "  extend  their  remarks  in  the 
Record."  Thus  they  get  everything  they  want  printed  at 
government  expense,  and  send  back  to  the  admiring  folks 
at  home  copies  of  long  speeches  which  were  never  delivered 
at  all.  This  is  particularly  common  when  a  congressman  is 
running  for  reelection. 

Each  house  also  makes  its  own  rules  of  order.  These 
differ  in  some  notable  respects,  for  things  often  need  to  be 
done  differently  in  a  body  of  fewer  than  a  hundred  men 
than  in  an  assembly  of  over  four  hundred.  The  House  adopts 
a  set  of  rules  at  the  beginning  of  each  new  Congress,  although 


160      How  Our  National  Laws  are  Made 

these  generally  do  not  differ  very  much  from  those  of  the 
preceding  Congress.  The  rules  of  the  Senate  continue  un- 
changed except  when  the  Senate  takes  special  action  to 
alter  them. 

In  the  House,  the  time  that  any  member  may  occupy  in 
debate  is  definitely  limited,  and  all  debate  may  be  cut  off 
by  carrying  the  parliamentary  motion  known  as  the  previous 
question.  A  standing  Committee  on  Rules  possesses  almost 
arbitrary  power  in  directing  the  business  of  the  House  and 
determining  what  bills  shall  be  given  preference  in  considera- 
tion by  the  House.  In  the  Senate,  however,  until  March,  1917, 
debate  was  unlimited.  This  privilege  was  supposed  to  make 
possible  the  bringing  out  of  all  possible  arguments  on  a  dis- 
puted question,  though  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  votes  of 
many  senators  were  ever  changed  by  the  long-winded  dis- 
cussions that  sometimes  occurred. 

Occasionally,  notably  near  the  end  of  a  session  of  Con- 
gress, a  trick  known  as  "  filibustering  "  is  undertaken.  By 
talking  indefinitely  and  doing  other  things  to  take  up  time, 
a  very  few  senators  have  been  able  to  defeat  measures  desired 
by  a  great  majority  of  the  whole  body.  A  senator  once 
talked  twenty  hours  consecutively.  The  feeling  aroused  by 
a  successful  filibuster  against  a  bill  which  President  Wilson 
desired  when  our  affairs  with  Germany  were  in  a  critical 
state  caused  the  rules  to  be  changed,  so  that  by  a  two- 
thirds  vote  the  Senate  can  force  the  closing  of  debate  on  a 
measure. 

95.  Officers  of  Congress.  —  The  presiding  officer  in  the 
Senate  is  the  Vice  President,  who  takes  no  part  in  debate,  and 
votes  only  when  there  is  a  tie.  The  Senate  elects  one  of  its 
own  members  as  president  pro  tempore,  who  presides  when 
the  Vice  President  is  absent,  and  who  becomes  the  permanent 
presiding  officer  if  the  vice  presidency  is  vacant.  The 
Senate  also  has  a  secretary,  a  doorkeeper,  a  postmaster,  a 
chaplain,  and  a  sergeant-at-arms.  The  duties  of  the  latter 
are  to  keep  order,  hunt  up  absent  members,  and  the  like. 


Officers  of  Congress 


161 


In  the  House  the  regular  presiding  officer  is  the  Speaker. 
He  is  elected  from  the  House  itself  and  is  usually  the  leader 
of  the  majority  party  there.  The  position  is  one  of  much 
importance,  though  its  powers  have  been  reduced  in  recent 
years.  No  member  may  speak  or  offer  a  motion  unless  he  is 
recognized  by  the  Speaker,  and  the  Speaker  also  makes 
rulings  on  points  of  order,  on  referring  bills  to  committees, 
and  the  like,  which  indirectly  may  have  an  important  effect 


Senate  Office  Building,  Washington. 


on  a  bill's  chances  of  becoming  a  law.  He  can  be  a  tyrant  on 
a  small  scale  if  he  so  desires ;  yet  such  a  large  body  as  the 
House  would  get  nothing  .done  unless  sufficient  authority 
were  placed  in  some  one's  hands  to  direct  affairs  and  keep 
business  moving. 

Is  it  better  that  the  Speaker  should  be  a  mere  presiding  officer 
or  that  he  should  have  extensive  powers? 


The  House  has  a  clerk,  a  sergeant-at-arms,  and  other 
officers  like  the  Senate.  Sometimes  former  Congressmen  are 
elected  to  some  of  these  positions,  but  no  person  may  expect 


162      How  Our  National  Laws  are  Made 

to  get  one  of  them  unless  he  is  politically  friendly  to  the  party 
in  power. 

96.  The  Committee  System.  —  A  very  large  part  of  the 
business  of  Congress  is  done  through  committees.  When 
a  new  Congress  begins,  a  large  number  of  standing  com- 
mittees are  organized  in  each  house  to  deal  with  certain 
kinds  of  business,  as  Interstate  and  Foreign  Commerce,  or 
Post  Offices  and  Post  Roads.  Whenever  a  bill  is  introduced 
it  is  referred  to  one  of  these  committees.  In  the  House  the 
Ways  and  Means  Committee,  which  considers  all  tax  laws, 
is  regarded  as  the  most  important,  and  the  chairman- 
ship of  this  committee  is  an  honor  second  only  to  that  of 
Speaker. 

The  number  of  persons  on  a  committee  in  the  House  runs 
from  three  to  twenty-two,  in  the  Senate  three  to  fifteen. 
Membership  on  these  committees  is  really  determined  by 
the  leaders  of  the  parties  in  Congress,  members  with  the 
longest  service  being  considered  first.  The  majority  party 
keeps  the  control  of  all  the  important  committees  in  its 
own  hands. 

The  committee  system  was  borrowed  from  the  English 
Parliament,  but  has  been  developed  far  beyond  any  use  of 
it  that  England  ever  saw.  Since  many  thousands  of  bills 
are  introduced  in  every  Congress,  it  would  be  absolutely 
impossible  to  allow  every  bill  to  be  debated  by  the  whole 
membership.  Each  committee  selects  from  the  bills  which 
are  referred  to  it  the  ones  which  it  wishes  to  act  on, 
and  ignores  the  rest.  Good  bills  as  well  as  bad  ones  may 
be  "  killed  "  by  a  committee's  refusal  to  consider  them. 
But  we  have  to  put  up  with  this  disadvantage  in  order 
to  get  anything  done  at  all.  No  doubt  fewer  good  bills 
would  be  lost  in  this  way  if  public  records  were  kept  of  the 
way  members  vote  while  acting  on  bills  as  members  of 
committees. 

Find  out  the  names  of  the  chief  standing  committees  of  the  two 
houses  of  Congress.     Do  any  of  the  members  from  your  state  hold 


The  Process  of  Lawmaking  163 

prominent  positions  on  them?     How  many  bills  were  introduced 
into  the  last  Congress  ? 

97.  The  Process  of  Lawmaking.  —  The  ordinary  process 
which  a  bill  goes  through  in  order  to  become  a  law  is  about 
as  follows :  It  may  be  introduced  by  any  member  of  either 
house,  unless  it  is  a  revenue  bill,  which  must  come  from  the 
House  of  Representatives.  Then  the  presiding  officer  refers 
it  to  the  committee  which  considers  that  kind  of  bills.  At 
this  point  the  great  mass  of  all  bills  quietly  meet  a  peaceful 
death.  The  committee  does  nothing  with  them  and  they  are 
never  heard  of  again. 

If  the  committee  decides  that  the  bill  ought  to  receive 
further  consideration,  they  will  report  it  favorably  to 
the  house,  perhaps  offering  some  amendments.  After  the 
report,  the  bill  is  put  upon  the  calendar,  to  wait  its  turn. 

When  that  time  comes,  it  may  be  debated  and  perhaps 
amended.  The  greater  part  of  the  discussion  is  carried  on 
while  the  House  is  meeting  under  the  name  of  the  "com- 
mittee of  the  whole."  At  such  times  greater  freedom  in  de- 
bate is  allowed,  and  no  record  is  kept  of  the  way  individual 
members  vote.  As  a  result  many  changes  are  made  which 
would  not  occur  if  a  public  record  were  kept  of  such  votes. 
The  final  vote  on  a  bill,  however,  is  almost  always  taken  by  a 
roll  call  of  the  members.  If  a  majority  of  the  members 
present  and  voting  are  then  in  favor  of  it,  it  will  be  passed, 
as  far  as  that  house  is  concerned. 

All  this  has  taken  place  in  the  house  where  the  bill  was 
introduced.  Then  it  goes  to  the  other  house  and  must  run 
an  exactly  similar  gantlet  there.  If  it  is  amended  in  the 
least,  it  must  go  back  to  the  first  house  for  its  agreement. 
If  the  first  house  does  not  agree  to  the  changes,  a  special 
conference  committee,  made  up  of  members  from  both  houses, 
will  try  to  harmonize  the  differences  between  them.  If  the 
bill  is  at  last  agreed  to  by  both  houses  in  exactly  the  same 
form,  it  is  sent  to  the  President. 

After  a  bill  gets  to  the  President,  there  are  three  ways  by 


164      How  Our  National  Laws  are  Made 

which  it  may  become  a  law :  (1)  He  may  indicate  his  ap- 
proval by  signing  it.  (2)  He  may  keep  it  10  days  without 
taking  any  action  on  it.  Treatment  of  this  kind  would 
indicate  that  there  were  some  features  about  it  which  he 
did  not  like,  but  that  for  some  reason  he  did  not  care  to 
prevent  its  passage.  (3)  He  may  veto  the  bill,  sending  it 
back  without  his  signature  to  the  house  where  it  was  in- 
troduced, with  a  message  telling  why  he  disapproved  it. 
Then  the  two  houses  by  a  two-thirds  vote  can  pass  it  over 
his  veto.     This  rarely  happens. 


Government  Building,  Newport  News,  Virginia. 

If  the  President  vetoes  a  bill  and  either  house  cannot  give 
a  two-thirds  vote  in  its  favor,  the  bill  is  dead,  for  that  session 
at  least.  And  if  a  session  of  Congress  comes  to  an  end  before 
the  ten  days  have  expired  which  are  granted  to  the  President 
to  think  over  a  bill,  that  bill  is  considered  dead.  Putting 
an  end  to  a  bill  in  this  way  is  known  as  the  "  pocket  veto." 

98.  Powers  of  Congress. — The  powers  given  to  Congress 
by  the  Constitution  may  be  classified  as  follows : 

(1)  Financial.  Congress  may  lay  and  collect  practically 
all  kinds  of  taxes  except  taxes  on  exported  goods,  but  all 
taxes  must  be  uniform  throughout  the  United  States. 


Powers  of  Congress 


165 


Congress  may  also  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the 
United  States.  This  is  generally  done  through  the  issue  of 
bonds.  These  are  sold  in  the  market  the  same  as  any  other 
thing  might  be.  They  are  really  promises  that  the  govern- 
ment will  at  a  certain  specified  time,  perhaps  twenty  or 
thirty  years  later,  pay  to  the  holder  a  sum  of  money,  mean- 
time giving  him  interest  on  it  at  regular  intervals. 


Copyright,  Underwood  &  Underwood 
A  12-inch  Mortar,  Ready  for  Action. 
Fort  Wright,  Fisher's  Island,  New  York. 


Congress  may  also  coin  money,  regulate  its  value  and  the 
value  of  foreign  coin,  and  provide  for  the  punishment  of 
counterfeiters. 

(2)  Military.  Congress  may  provide  and  maintain  an 
army  and  a  navy,  but  in  order  that  this  may  not  be  done 
contrary  to  the  will  of  the  people  appropriations  for  this 
purpose  cannot  be  made  for  more  than  two  years  at  one 
time.  In  fact  appropriations  are  made  for  one  year  only. 
Congress  may  provide  for  calling  out  the  militia  of  the  states, 


166      How  Our  National  Laws  are  Made 

and  may  make  rules  for  their  government  as  well  as  for 
that  of  the  regular  army. 

It  has  the  very  important  power  of  declaring  war,  and 
making  rules  in  regard  to  captures  in  war.  It  has  the  right 
to  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  which  would  authorize 
a  shipowner  to  go  out  as  a  privateer  in  time  of  war  and 
plunder  the  enemy's  commerce.  But  civilized  nations  no 
longer  permit  privateering,  and  probably  this  power  will 
never  be  used  again. 

(3)  Territorial.  Congress  may  make  all  laws  necessary 
for  the  government  of  the  territory  belonging  to  the  United 
States,  and  may,  when  it  thinks  wise  to  do  so,  form  states 
out  of  this  territory  and  admit  them  into  the  Union.  It  has 
full  authority  over  the  District  of  Columbia,  the  seat  of 
the  national  government,  and  over  any  place  purchased 
by  the  national  government  and  used  for  forts,  docks,  or 
other  governmental  purposes. 

Although  the  Constitution  says  nothing  about  it,  Congress 
is  recognized  as  having  the  right  to  buy  or  otherwise  obtain 
or  dispose  of  territory.  The  Supreme  Court  has  ruled  that 
this  power  belongs  to  every  government  and  therefore  did 
not  need  to  be  specified  in  the  Constitution. 

(4)  Commercial.  This  group  includes  a  wide  range  of 
powers,  to  the  full  scope  and  importance  of  which  Congress 
is  only  just  now  waking  up.  It  has  power  to  regulate  com- 
merce between  the  states,  with  foreign  countries,  and  with 
the  Indians.  The  right  to  regulate  interstate  commerce 
was  not  made  use  of  until  1887  but  has  lately  been  tremen- 
dously extended  to  cover  a  great  variety  of  laws  affecting 
labor  and  industry. 

Congress  may  establish  post  offices  and  post  roads.  By 
patent  and  copyright  laws  it  may  encourage  scientists, 
authors,  and  inventors.  It  may  fix  the  standard  of  weights 
and  measures,  though  it  has  not  yet  exercised  this  power 
very  fully.  It  may  make  laws  governing  bankruptcy,  in 
order  that  a  person  whose  business  affairs  have  become  hope- 


Special  Provisions  Affecting  Congressmen     167 

lessly  embarrassed  may  have  a  chance  to  start  new  again. 
This  power  also  has  not  been  exercised  all  the  time. 

(5)  Political.  Congress  may  pass  naturalization  laws 
authorizing  a  foreigner  to  become  a  citizen  of  this  country. 
It  may  determine  the  punishment  for  treason,  piracy,  and 
offenses  against  international  law,  as  well  as  for  offenses 
committed  on  the  sea.  It  has  the  important  duty  of  organiz- 
ing courts  below  the  Supreme  Court,  and  even  of  arranging 
the  number  of  judges  in  that  body  and  the  regulations  under 
which  all  the  federal  courts  shall  operate.  It  may  propose 
amendments  to  the  Constitution  itself,  in  which  case  a  two- 
thirds  vote  is  required. 

(6)  General.  At  the  close  of  Article  I,  Section  8,  of  the 
Constitution  is  attached  a  clause  commonly  known  as  the 
"  elastic  clause."  This  gives  Congress  power  "  to  make  all 
laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carrying  into 
execution  "  any  powers  vested  by  the  Constitution  in  any 
department  or  officer  of  the  United  States  government.  This 
seems  on  its  face  to  authorize  anything  whatever  tl&t 
would  help  to  carry  out  any  of  the  powers  we  have  named. 

In  the  early  days  of  our  national  history  many  held  the 
view  that  the  powers  granted  to  Congress  must  be  construed 
strictly,  and  that  the  national  government  must  undertake 
nothing  except  what  was  specifically  mentioned  in  the 
Constitution.  But  the  decisions  of  the  great  Chief  Justice 
John  Marshall  gave  the  support  of  the  Supreme  Court  to 
the  "  broad  construction  "  theory.  To-day  no  honest  and 
intelligent  citizen  would  think  of  reversing  this  policy. 
Congress  enacts  to-day  as  a  matter  of  course  many  measures 
to  which  nobody  objects,  but  which  it  would  be  hard  to 
find  authorized  in  the  Constitution. 

Tell  something  about  the  leading  advocates  of  "broad  con- 
struction" and  "strict  construction"  in  our  history. 

99.  Special  Provisions  Affecting  Congressmen.  —  The 
Constitution  declares  that  members  of  Congress  shall  be 


168      How  Our  National  Laws  are  Made 

paid  a  salary  out  of  the  national  treasury.  At  first  it  was 
fixed  by  law  at  $6  a  day,  but  has  now  been  raised  to  $7500  a 
year.  This  is  supplemented  by  various  extras,  such  as  a 
private  secretary  at  $3200  a  year,  mileage  to  and  from  Wash- 
ington at  the  beginning  and  end  of  a  session,  free  stationery, 
and  the  "  franking  "  privilege  of  sending  mail  free  which 
deals  with  public  business.  The  salary  is  not  enormous, 
it  is  true,  but  it  is  more  than  some  Congressmen  could  get 
at  anything  else,  and  with  economy  a  Congressman  can  live 
on  it  very  comfortably  in  Washington. 

In  order  to  prevent  the  bringing  of  private  lawsuits  or 
other  legal  obstacles  to  hinder  a  Congressman's  attendance 
upon  his  duties,  the  Constitution  provides  that  a  member 
shall  be  free  from  arrest  while  present  at  the  sessions  of 
Congress  and  while  going  to  and  from  them,  except  for  the 
commission  of  a  crime.  A  person  engaged  in  making  the 
laws  certainly  ought  not  to  break  them,  and  there  is  no 
reason  for  excusing  from  the  proper  penalties  a  Congressman 
who  so  far  forgets  the  dignity  of  his  office  as  to  become  a 
violator  of  the  law. 

To  encourage  the  freest  possible  discussion  of  matters  in 
Congress,  no  member  can  be  called  to  account  outside  of 
Congress  for  anything  he  says  while  there.  The  house  to 
which  he  belongs  may  punish  him  for  abusing  this  privilege, 
but  no  one  who  feels  injured  by  something  a  Congressman 
has  said  can  proceed  against  him  personally  unless  the 
objectionable  remarks  were  made  outside  of  Congress. 

No  member  of  Congress  may  hold  any  other  office  under 
the  United  States  at  the  same  time.  He  may,  however, 
resign  from  Congress  and  then  take  another  office.  But 
not  even  this  is  permitted  if  the  office  was  created  or  if 
its  salary  was  increased  during  the  time  for  which  the 
person  was  elected  to  Congress.  If  this  restriction  did 
not  exist,  Congressmen  might  cause  salaries  to  be  raised  or 
new  offices  established  for  the  special  purpose  of  getting 
them. 


Questions  169 

If  a  Congressman  in  a  speech  on  the  floor  of  the  House  accused 
the  President's  wife  of  being  a  thief,  what,  if  anything,  could  be 
done  about  it  ?  A  Congressman  in  Washington  once  shot  a  negro  in 
a  street  car.     Could  anything  be  done  to  him? 

QUESTIONS 

Why  was  our  present  national  Constitution  made?  When  and 
where?  From  what  sources  did  its  makers  get  their  ideas?  Did 
they  do  good  work? 

Of  what  is  Congress  composed?    Why  was  this  form  adopted? 

Who  constitute  the  Senate?  What  qualifications  must  they 
have  ?     How  are  they  chosen  and  for  how  long  ? 

How  many  representatives  are  there  and  how  is  their  number 
determined?  Compare  their  qualifications,  term,  and  method  of 
choice  with  the  Senate.     Define  gerrymander. 

State  the  special  powers  possessed  by  each  house  which  the 
other  does  not  have.  Why  does  the  Senate  enjoy  somewhat  greater 
prestige  than  the  House  ? 

Explain  the  custom  and  law  in  regard  to  the  sessions  of  Congress. 
What  is  the  number  of  the  session  now  going  on  or  most  recently 
held  ?    When  was  the  last  special  session  called  and  why  ? 

What  control  does  Congress  have  over  its  members?  Explain 
quorum.  What  is  the  Congressional  Record?  Mention  some 
significant  customs  concerning  debate. 

Who  are  the  presiding  officers  of  the  two  houses,  and  what  is  the 
importance  of  their  positions?  What  minor  officers  does  each 
house  have? 

What  is  the  purpose  of  the  committees  ?     How  are  they  made  up  ? 

Trace  the  complete  process  of  enacting  a  bill  into  law,  noting 
(1)  the  action  by  the  house  where  it  was  introduced,  (2)  further 
consideration  by  Congress,  (3)  the  connection  of  the  President  with 
lawmaking.     Define  conference  committee,  pocket  veto. 

Mention  the  powers  granted  to  Congress  by  the  Constitution, 
classifying  them  as  Financial,  Military,  Territorial,  Commercial, 
Political,  and  General.  Take  some  list  of  acts  passed  by  a  session  of 
Congress  and  see  what  clauses  of  the  Constitution  would  justify 
each  particular  act.  Explain  broad  construction  and  strict  con- 
struction. • 

What  compensation  do  Congressmen  get?  Do  you  think  it  is 
large  enough?  What  privileges  do  Congressmen  enjoy  by  virtue 
of  holding  their  office?  What  limitations  are  placed  upon  their 
holding  other  offices? 


170      How  Our  National  Laws  are  Made 


SPECIAL  TOPICS 

The  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787. 

A  Day's  Work  in  Congress. 

What  a  Congressman  Has  to  Do. 

Leading  Members  of  the  Present  Congress. 

The  Speaker  and  His  Power. 

Some  Famous  Speakers. 

The  Committees  of  Congress. 

The  Congressman  from  Our  District. 

The  Senators  from  Our  State. 


CHAPTER  XI 

OUR  CHIEF  EXECUTIVE 


Here  was  a  type  of  the  true  elder  race, 

And  one  of  Plutarch's  men  talked  with  us  face  to  face.  —  Lowell. 


100.  Importance  of  the  President.  —  The  person  in  this 
republic  who  comes  nearest  to  holding  the  place  that  a  king 
or  emperor  enjoys  in  a  monarchy  is  the  President.  He  is 
elected  indirectly  by  the  people  and  after  he  has  held  the 
office  he  retires  to  live  among  them  again  like  any  other  man. 
But  while  he  is  in  office  he  represents  the  power  of  the  nation 
in  action,  and  no  monarch  who  inherits  his  office,  in  any 
government  in  all  the  world,  possesses  as  much  real 
authority. 

The  enforcement  of  the  laws  at  home,  the  protection  of 
the  honor  and  dignity  of  the  nation  in  its  relations  with 
other  countries,  the  spirit  and  motives  which  shall  rule 
our  national  policies,  all  depend  in  large  measure  upon  the 
character  and  ability  of  the  man  who  lives  at  the  White 
House  in  Washington.  It  is  right  that  the  American  people 
should  feel  that  the  election  of  any  president  may  be  the 
making  or  wrecking  of  a  nation's  opportunities  for  greatness 
or  service,  and  it  is  not  strange  that  every  other  civilized 
nation  feels  a  deep  interest  in  the  outcome  of  our  presidential 
campaigns. 

101.  Term,  Qualifications,  and  Salary.  —  The  President 
is  elected  for  a  term  of  four  years.  The  Constitution  says 
nothing  about  reelection,  leaving  the  matter  open  for  the 

171 


^ 


172  Our  Chief  Executive 

people  to  do  as  they  please.  Nine  of  our  presidents  have 
been  honored  in  this  way.  Chiefly  because  Washington, 
the  first  president,  refused  to  take  more  than  two  terms,  no 
other  man  has  received  more  than  that  number.  But  all 
the  attempts  to  alter  the  Constitution  so  as  to  forbid  re- 
election after  one  or  two  terms  have  failed.  The  people 
seem  to  feel  that,  whatever  their  custom  may  be,  it  would  not 
be  wise  to  give  up  wholly  the  right  to  elect  a  man  as  often 
as  they  please,  if  circumstances  should  appear  to  require  it. 

The  suggestion  has  been  made  that  the  term  should  be  ex- 
tended to  six  years  and  no  reelection  allowed.  What  advantages 
or  disadvantages  do  you  see  in  this  plan?  Would  a  business  firm 
choose  a  general  manager  on  such  a  principle  ? 

The  President  must  be  35  years  old,  a  native-born  American 
citizen,  and  a  resident  of  this  country  for  14  years.  They 
are  generally  considerably  older  than  35.  Roosevelt,  who 
was  not  quite  43  when  he  became  president,  was  the  nearest 
to  the  age  limit,  although  some  have  been  nominated  when 
even  younger  than  Roosevelt  was.  The  other  requirements 
are  intended  to  make  it  certain  that  the  president  shall  be  a 
real  American,  who  will  understand  the  needs  of  this  nation 
and  put  them  first  in  his  thoughts  and  plans. 

The  President's  term  begins  on  the  4th  of  March  of  the 
year  following  leap  year.  His  inauguration,  or  formal  in- 
troduction to  office,  is  witnessed  by  many  thousands  of  people 
from  all  parts  of  the  country.  Sometimes  extensive  military 
display  accompanies  the  ceremonies.  The  President  receives 
the  oath  of  office  from  the  chief  justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court.  He  then  delivers  his  inaugural  address.  Sometimes 
this  is  an  important  discussion  of  national  policies  to  be 
followed  by  his  administration,  as  in  the  case  of  Lincoln  in 
1861. 

The  President's  official  residence  in  Washington  is  known 
as  the  White  House.  Connected  with  it  are  the  executive 
offices  managed  by  the  President's  private  secretary  and 


Method  of  Election 


173 


assistants.  The  expense  for  the  salaries  of  the  secretaries, 
the  maintenance  of  the  offices,  the  conservatories,  and  other 
features  of  the  presidential  residence  are  met  from  the 
national  treasury. 

As  a  personal  salary  the  President  receives  $75,000  a  year. 
This  sum  is  small  in  comparison  with  what  the  heads  of  most 
governments  receive.  People  like  to  have  the  President  do 
considerable  traveling  and  visiting  in  different  sections  of 
the  country.     These  are  expensive  if  paid  for,  and  yet  it 


The  White  House. 


seems  out  of  place  for  a  president,  by  accepting  favors 
from  railroads  or  other  public  servants,  to  put  himself  under 
obligation  to  them.  President  Roosevelt  therefore  proposed 
that  Congress  should  allow  the  president  to  be  repaid 
whatever  his  traveling  expenses  for  a  year  amounted  to,  if 
the  sum  did  not  exceed  $25,000.  This  practice  has  generally 
been  followed  since. 

102.  Method  of  Election.  —  No  part  of  the  Constitution 
has  worked  as  little  in  the  way  its  makers  expected  as  the 
method  provided  for  electing  the  President.     They  planned 


174  Our  Chief  Executive 

that  a  body  of  electors,  specially  chosen  for  intelligence  and 
judgment,  should  carefully  weigh  the  merits  of  public  men 
and  vote  according  to  their  independent  convictions  for 
men  to  serve  as  president  and  vice  president.  To-day,  while 
the  forms  laid  down  in  the  Constitution  are  strictly  observed, 
the  electors  are  merely  agents  who  vote  as  a  matter  of  course 
for  candidates  who  have  been  nominated  beforehand  by 
some  political  party.  The  process  of  selecting  a  president 
now  includes  the  following  steps: 

(1)  The  nomination  of  candidates.  In  the  month  of 
June  or  July  in  leap  years  each  great  political  party  holds 
a  national  convention  in  some  large  city  of  the  country. 
Delegates  to  attend  a  party  convention  are  chosen  in  each 
state  by  the  members  of  the  party  in  such  a  way  as  the  laws 
of  that  state  authorize  or  allow.  Several  candidates  may 
be  proposed  before  the  convention  by  delegates  from  the 
different  states.  If  more  than  one  candidate  is  presented, 
the  delegates  take  a  formal  ballot.  Thirty  or  forty  ballots 
are  sometimes  taken  before  a  candidate  is  nominated.  The 
Republicans  require  only  a  majority  of  delegates  to  make 
the  nomination,  but  the  Democrats  require  a  two-thirds  vote. 
A  candidate  for  vice  president  is  also  selected.  Before  or 
after  the  nominations  are  made,  a  platform,  or  official  state- 
ment of  party  principles,  is  adopted. 

One  might  suppose  that  each  party  would  try  to  pick  out 
its  ablest  and  wisest  members  to  put  before  the  nation  as 
its  candidates  for  high  office,  but  frequently  this  is  not  done. 
A  great  man,  because  of  his  positive  views  on  disputed 
questions,  may  have  made  enemies  whom  a  less  prominent 
man  would  not  have  and  therefore  the  great  man  might  not 
get  so  many  votes  as  a  less  known  candidate.  Sometimes 
a  candidate  is  favored  who  lives  in  a  large  state  like  New  York 
or  a  state  like  Indiana  which  is  likely  to  be  evenly  divided 
between  the  two  great  parties,  in  the  hope  that  he  will  win 
this  doubtful  state  for  the  party. 

Sometimes  when  different  factions  in  a  party  have  been 


Method  of  Election  175 

fighting  desperately  to  nominate  a  candidate  of  their  own 
faction,  a  compromise  is  made  by  nominating  a  "  dark  horse," 
that  is,  some  one  who  had  not  been  mentioned  prominently, 
if  at  all,  in  connection  with  the  nomination.  And  many  an 
influence  unknown  to  the  party  at  large  finds  its  secret  way 
to  turn  the  action  of  a  convention  in  a  direction  which 
even  the  convention  may  not  fully  realize. 

(2)  The  choice  of  electors.    The  Constitution  requires  each 


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f'                                 ritiM 

Copyright,  Underwood  &  Underwood 

Democratic  Presidential  Nominating  Convention. 
At  St.  Louis,  July  14,  1916. 

state  to  choose  a  group  of  presidential  electors  equal  in 
number  to  the  senators  and  representatives  from  that  state 
in  Congress.  The  total  number  at  present  is  531.  In  such  a 
way  as  the  laws  of  a  state  may  require,  each  party  nominates 
a  list  of  candidates  for  presidential  electors.  On  the  first 
Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  November  the  voters  of 
each  state  choose  the  electors  for  that  state. 

Each  voter  may  vote  for  the  entire  number  of  electors  to 
which  his  state  is  entitled.    By  custom  and  common  consent 


176  Our  Chief  Executive 

it  is  understood  that  the  Republican  electors,  for  example, 
if  they  are  chosen,  will  vpte  for  the  candidates  already  nomi- 
nated by  the  national  convention.  A  voter  who  favors 
election  of  the  Republican  candidates  for  president  and  vice 
president  will  therefore,  if  he  has  good  sense,  vote  for  the 
whole  list  of  electors  nominated  by  that  party ;  for  the  per- 
sonal qualities  of  the  electors  are  of  no  importance,  as  they 
have  nothing  to  do  now  but  to  perform  a  certain  formal  duty. 
This  November  election  is  the  decisive  feature  of  the  whole 
process.  It  follows  a  period  of  several  months  in  which  all 
kinds  of  efforts  have  been  made  to  win  votes.  Unless  the 
election  is  very  close,  it  will  probably  be  known  during  the 
evening  of  election  day  in  almost  every  community  which 
party  has  been  successful  in  most  of  the  different  states  and 
who  will  therefore  be  the  next  president.  Most  of  the  rest  of 
the  process  which  we  are  describing  might  as  well  be  omitted 
as  far  as  it  has  any  real  importance.  But  the  Constitution 
provides  it,  and  so  it  is  carried  out  in  due  form. 

Notice  that  except  in  very  unusual  circumstances  the  electoral 
vote  of  a  state  will  be  cast  solidly  for  one  candidate,  even  though 
his  popular  vote  in  that  state  may  be  only  a  little  larger  than  that 
of  some  other  candidate.  Would  it  be  possible  for  a  candidate  to 
get  a  majority  of  the  electoral  vote  who  did  not  stand  first  in  the 
popular  vote  for  the  entire  country  ?  Prove  your  answer  from  our 
history. 

(3)  Voting  by  the  electors.  The  electors  in  each  state  meet 
at  their  state  capital  on  the  second  Monday  of  the  following 
January  and  cast  their  votes  for  the  candidates  of  the  parties 
which  they  represent.  They  make  out  three  reports  of  their 
balloting  and  send  two  Of  them  to  the  presiding  officer  of 
the  Senate  at  Washington.  The  third  is  left  with  the 
United  States  district  judge  in  whose  district  they  meet. 

(4)  Counting  the  electoral  votes.  On  the  second  Wednesday 
in  February  both  houses  of  Congress  meet  in  the  hall  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  and  in  their  presence  the  presiding 
officer  of  the  Senate  opens  the  returns  and  causes  them  to 


Succession  to  the  Presidency  177 

be  formally  counted.  If  it  appears  from  this  useless  cere- 
mony that  some  person  has  received  a  majority  of  the  whole 
number  of  electoral  votes  for  president  or  vice  president,  he 
is  declared  elected. 

(5)  Special  election  by  the  Houses.  If,  however,  no  candi- 
date for  president  has  a  majority,  the  election  is  referred  to 
the  House  of  Representatives,  which  will  elect  one  of  the 
three  highest  candidates.  In  this  case  the  members  vote  by 
states,  not  as  individuals.  This  has  not  happened  since 
1825,  when  John  Quincy  Adams  was  elected.  If  no  one  has  a 
majority  for  vice  president,  the  Senate  makes  the  choice, 
voting  individually.  Richard  M.  Johnson  was  elected  this 
way  in  1837  —  the  only  time  it  has  occurred. 

How  much  of  this  process  of  choosing  the  president  could  be 
safely  done  away  with?  Do  you  think  of  any  possible  improve- 
ments in  any  step  of  the  process? 

Review  the  story  of  the  presidential  election  of  1876.  How 
did  the  Electoral  Count  Act  of  1886  aim  to  prevent  the  repetition 
of  tho  events  of  1876-77? 

103.  Succession  to  the  Presidency.  —  If  the  President 
dies,  resigns,  or  is  removed,  the  Vice  President  becomes 
president.  He  also  will  act  as  president  if  that  officer  is 
temporarily  unable  to  serve  for  any  reason,  though  thus  far 
no  occasion  has  arisen  to  make  this  necessary.  It  is  evident 
that  the  office  of  vice  president  ought  to  be  filled  with  almost 
as  much  care  as  is  shown  in  choosing  the  president  himself. 

The  sad  experience  of  the  Whig  party  with  Tyler  and  the 
Republicans  with  Johnson  when  those  men  unexpectedly 
became  president  ought  to  have  taught  parties  to  be  careful 
in  making  nominations  for  the  vice  presidency.  But  in 
practice  the  candidates  for  this  office  are  selected  to  represent 
a  certain  state  or  section  or  a  disappointed  faction  of  a 
party  more  often  than  for  any  other  reasons. 

Like  an  extra  wheel  on  an  automobile,  a  place  has  to  be 
found  to  put  the  Vice  President  while  waiting  for  an  emer- 
gency in  which  he  may  be  used.    The  Constitution  therefore 


178  Our  Chief  Executive 

makes  him  the  regular  presiding  officer  of  the  Senate.  This 
is  not  an  attractive  place  for  a  man  of  active  disposition, 
and  on  that  account  men  of  real  ability  have  sometimes 
objected  to  being  chosen  for  the  position. 

What  vice  presidents  became  "accidental"  presidents?  Were 
any  of  them  afterward  given  a  regular  election  to  the  presidency? 
Can  you  think  of  any  way  of  increasing  the  dignity  of  the  office  of 
vice  president  ? 

The  Constitution  gives  Congress  the  power  to  arrange  for 
the  filling  of  vacancies  in  the  presidency  that  may  occur  when 
the  vice  presidency  is  itself  vacant.  The  law  now  in  force 
provides  that  the  heads  of  the  executive  departments, 
commonly  known  as  the  Cabinet,  shall  form  the  line  of  suc- 
cession, as  far  as  those  departments  were  in  existence  when 
the  law  was  passed.  The  Secretary  of  State  heads  the  list, 
followed  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  the  Secretary  of 
War,  the  Attorney-General,  the  Postmaster-General,  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  and  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 

Why  is  it  unlikely  that  any  one  further  down  the  list  than 
Secretary  of  State  will  ever  act  as  president? 

If  the  successful  presidential  candidate  should  die  between  the 
November  election  and  the  second  Monday  of  January,  what  do 
you  suppose  would  be  done  about  it?  What  if  he  should  clie 
between  the  latter  date  and  the  4th  of  March? 

104.  Powers  and  Duties  of  the  President.  —  It  will  be 
noticed  that  while  the  president  is  primarily  the  "  chief 
executive  "  of  the  nation  he  has  some  duties  that  are  con- 
nected with  lawmaking  and  some  that  have  also  a  judicial 


(1)  It  is  his  duty  to  see  that  "  the  laws  be  faithfully  exe- 
cuted." He  can  actually  do  very  little  of  this  kind  of  work 
himself,  but  his  attitude  toward  the  enforcement  of  laws  and 
toward  the  faithful  performance  of  duty  by  subordinate 
officers  will  have  a  tremendous  moral  effect  upon  the  whole 
administration  of  the  government. 

(2)  He  is  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and  navy  of  the 


Powers  and  Duties  of  the  President      179 

United  States  and  of  the  state  militia  when  called  into  the 
federal  service.  He  may  use  this  power  in  any  way  that  is 
necessary  to  make  the  laws  of  the  country  obeyed.  Al- 
though a  declaration  of  war  can  come  only  from  Congress, 
the  president  could  so  use  the  army  and  navy  as  to  make 
war  almost  inevitable.     No  president  has  ever  abused  this 


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power,  but  if  he  should  try  to  do  so  Congress  could  restrain 
him  either  by  impeaching  him  or  by  refusing  to  spend  more 
money  on  the  army  and  navy. 

Could  the  president  take  actual  command  of  an  army  in  the  field 
in  time  of  war?    Would  he  be  likely  to  want  to  do  so? 

(3)  He  appoints  all  officers  of  the  United  States  whose 
appointments  are  not  otherwise  provided  for,  subject,  with 
some  exceptions,  to  the  approval  of  the  Senate.  Such  ap- 
pointments made  when  the  Senate  is  not  in  session  will  hold 
good  until  the  close  of  the  next  session  of  that  body. 
The  requirement  of  the  Senate's  approval  has  led  to  the 


180  Our  Chief  Executive 

practice  known  as  "  Senatorial  courtesy.' '  In  accordance 
with  this  notion,  if  a  man  appointed  to  office  is  not  satis- 
factory to  the  senators  from  his  state,  he  may  be  rejected 
without  regard  to  his  fitness  for  the  position.  Presidents 
of  course  make  occasional  mistakes  in  appointments,  and 
it  may  be  well  to  have  a  check  upon  them.  But  it  is 
nothing  short  of  disgusting  to  witness  the  Senate  rejecting 
a  good  man  merely  because  a  senator  has  a  personal  spite 
against  him. 

Along  with  the  power  of  appointment  goes  the  duty  of 
signing  the  commissions  cf  officers  and  the  power  to  remove 
them  from  office.  This  rests  entirely  with  the  President. 
Federal  judges,  ^however,  though  appointed  by  him,  can  be 
removed  only  by  impeachment. 

(4)  He  may  make  treaties  with  foreign  countries.  As 
there  is  no  limit  to  the  subjects  with  which  a  treaty  may 
deal,  from  the  protection  of  game  birds  to  the  buying  of 
provinces,  a  wide  field  is  opened  in  which  the  President  may 
undertake  acts  of  far-reaching  importance.  In  this  matter, 
as  in  making  appointments,  the  approval  of  the  Senate  is 
necessary,  and  here  a  two-thirds  vote  is  required.  In  making 
treaties,  therefore,  the  attitude  of  the  Senate  must  always 
be  kept  in  mind. 

Frequently  the  President  directs  the  Secretary  of  State, 
one  of  our  foreign  ministers,  or  some  persons  specially  ap- 
pointed, to  do  the  actual  work  of  treaty-making.  A  treaty 
is  often  named  after  some  one  who  has  had  a  hand  in  mak- 
ing it. 

Do  you  think  it  is  wise  to  tie  the  President's  hands  somewhat  in 
treaty-making  by  requiring  ratification  by  the  Senate?  Most 
countries  do  not  do  that  way.  Would  it  be  better  if  only  a  ma- 
jority vote  were  required? 

(5)  He  decides  whether  to  receive  persons  sent  from  other 
countries  as  ambassadors  or  ministers.  The  use  of  this 
power  often  determines  whether  another  country  shall  be 
recognized  as  independent  or  which  of  two  contending  par- 


Powers  and  Duties  of  the  President      181 

ties  shall  be  regarded  by  the  United  States  as  the  lawful 
ruler  in  some  other  country.  It  might  happen  that  so  serious 
a  question  as  peace  or  war  could  hang  on  the  president's 
decision  in  exercising  this  power.  The  whole  Mexican  policy 
of  President  Wilson's  administration  rested  on  his  refusal  to 
deal  with  Huerta  as  the  rightful  head  of  the  Mexican  govern- 
ment. 

(6)  He  must  act  upon  all  measures  passed  by  Congress. 
Since  it  is  very  rare  that  a  two-thirds  vote  can  be  secured  in 


President  Wilson  Addressing  Congress. 

Congress  to  pass  a  bill  over  his  veto,  this  power  gives  the 
president  much  to  say  about  lawmaking.  Cleveland  vetoed 
several  times  as  many  bills  as  all  other  presidents  put  to- 
gether, but  they  were  largely  private  pension  bills.  Some 
presidents  get  the  same  results  by  notifying  the  leaders  in 
Congress  privately  that  a  certain  bill  will  be  vetoed  if 
passed,  and  urging  them  not  to  allow  it  to  get  through 
Congress. 

(7)  He  prepares  a  message  to  Congress  at  the  beginning 
of  each  session  and  at  such  other  times  as  he  thinks  desirable. 
The  chief  object  of  this  is  to  recommend  some  matter  for 


182  Our  Chief  Executive 

Congress  to  act  on,  though  sometimes,  as  the  Constitution 
suggests,  he  may  give  them  some  "  information  of  the  state 
of  the  Union  "  which  they  had  not  received  through  the 
newspapers  or  otherwise.  In  order  to  obtain  such  informa- 
tion himself,  he  may  require  reports  from  the  heads  of  the 
departments  under  his  supervision  on  matters  which  concern 
their  departments. 

For  a  long  time  the  presidents,  beginning  with  Jefferson, 
who  was  not  a  good  speaker,  sent  these  messages  in  writing. 
But  President  Wilson,  believing  that  a  message  delivered 
in  person  would  receive  much  better  attention,  restored  the 
custom  of  the  first  two  presidents  of  presenting  his  messages 
before  the  houses  meeting  in  joint  session. 

(8)  He  may  call  a  special  session  of  Congress  when  he 
thinks  the  needs  of  the  country  demand  it.  If  the  two 
houses  disagree  about  the  time  of  adjournment,  the  President 
may  fix  the  date. 

(9)  He  may  grant  reprieves  and  pardons  to  persons  con- 
victed of  crimes  against  federal  laws.  A  reprieve  is  a  delay 
in  carrying  out  a  sentence.  A  pardon  releases  a  person  from 
whatever  part  of  a  sentence  has  not  been  carried  out.  He 
may  also  exercise  the  power  of  commutation,  that  is,  making 
a  sentence  less  severe.  This  form  of  judicial  authority  is  a 
survival  of  one  of  the  old  powers  of  the  English  king.  It 
does  not  extend  to  cases  where  an  official  has  been  impeached, 
else  one  of  the  checks  which  Congress  has  upon  the  other  two 
departments  would  be  made  almost  worthless.  This  power 
might  be  abused  by  a  president  to  set  lawbreakers  free, 
but  no  one  has  ever  done  so  or  is  likely  to  do  so. 

In  fact,  the  worst  charge  that  can  be  truthfully  made 
against  any  of  our  presidents  is  that  they  have  made  mis- 
takes, and  have  at  times  done  the  thing  that  seemed  most 
advantageous  politically  rather  than  that  which  demanded 
the  highest  moral  courage.  But  they  will  compare  more  than 
favorably  with  any  line  of  rulers  that  any  other  country  has 
ever  had. 


Special  Topics  183 

Is  there  any  respect  in  which  you  think  the  power  of  the  President 
should  be  increased  or  diminished?  Mention  some  important 
occasions  when  the  action  of  the  President  determined  the  course 
of  American  History.  What  questions  of  precedent  or  authority 
were  raised  by  President  Wilson's  participation  in  the  Peace  Con- 
ference at  Paris? 


QUESTIONS 

Why  is  the  office  of  president  important?  Compare  it  with 
positions  of  prominence  in  other  countries. 

Explain  the  law  and  custom  in  regard  to  the  President's  term. 
Do  you  think  there  should  be  a  limit  to  a  person's  holding  any  office  ? 
Tell  the  main  facts  about  the  inauguration  of  the  President.  What 
compensation  does  he  get  for  his  services?  Is  it  enough?  What 
qualifications  must  he  possess?  Why?  Mr.  Bryce  has  written 
on  "Why  Great  Men  are  not  Chosen  President" ;  should  that  be 
taken  as  a  reflection  on  the  men  who  have  served  in  that  office? 
If  not,  what  does  it  mean  ?  Can  you  mention  any  cases  when  some- 
thing else  than  real  fitness  for  the  office  had  something  to  do  with  the 
election? 

How  are  presidential  candidates  nominated?  Explain  the 
electoral  college :  its  numbers  and  its  functions.  Why  is  the  vote 
of  a  state  rarely  divided  ?  Wherein  does  the  process  you  have  de- 
scribed differ  from  what  the  makers  of  the  Constitution  intended  ? 
How  large  a  vote  of  the  electors  is  necessary  to  cause  an  election? 
What  happens  if  no  candidate  gets  so  many  as  that?  When  has 
such  a  thing  occurred? 

Should  the  office  of  vice-president  command  much  respect? 
Does  it?  What  is  the  order  of  succession  to  the  presidency  below 
the  vice-president? 

Summarize  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  President.  Are  his 
powers  limited  more  or  less  than  they  should  be  ?  What  is  the  im- 
portance of  the  message  and  how  is  it  delivered  ? 

Define  reprieve;  pardon;  commutation. 


SPECIAL  TOPICS 

The  White  House. 

The  Life  of  the  President. 

Our  Present  President. 


CHAPTER  XII 

NATIONAL  ADMINISTRATIVE  DEPAETMENTS 


The  very  essence  of  free  government  consists  in  considering  offices 
as  public  trust,  bestowed  for  the  good  of  the  country.  —  Calhoun. 


105.  Development  of  the  Cabinet.  —  The  Constitution 
nowhere  states  that  there  shall  be  a  Cabinet.  In  Article 
II,  Section  2,  there  are  two  allusions  to  the  heads  of  depart- 
ments, but  everything  else  about  the  Cabinet  is  the  out- 
growth of  custom,  not  of  the  Constitution  or  of  any  law. 
The  ten  executive  departments  are  each  established  by  act  of 
Congress,  but  in  no  law  are  they  required  or  assumed  to  act 
together. 

In  Washington's  presidency  four  officials  composed  his 
list  of  advisers  —  the  Secretary  of  State,  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,  the  Secretary  of  War,  and  the  Attorney- 
General.  In  1798  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  was  added. 
In  1829  the  Postmaster-General,  whose  office  had  existed 
for  many  years,  began  to  be  considered  one  of  the  Cabinet. 
In  1849  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  was  provided  for,  and 
in  1889  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture.  In  1903  a  new  depart- 
ment was  created  which  ten  years  later  was  divided  into 
two,  headed  by  the  Secretary  of  Commerce  and  the  Secretary 
of  Labor.  During  the  campaign  of  1920  both  of  the  leading 
candidates  for  the  presidency  announced  that  if  elected  they 
would  invite  the  Vice-President  to  attend  Cabinet  meetings. 
Hereafter  this  office  will  doubtless  retain  this  added  dignity, 
and  will  serve  as  a  kind  of  link  between  the  executive  and 
legislative  departments. 

Who  are  the  present  members  of  the  Cabinet  ?  Recall  any  past 
Cabinet  officers  whose  service  was  marked  by  notable  accomplish- 
ments. 

184 


Functions  of  the  Cabinet 


185 


106.  Functions  of  the  Cabinet.  —  There  are  two  definite 
functions  which  the  Cabinet,  either  by  law  or  custom,  has 
come  to  exercise: 

(1)  Each  member  is  the  head  of  an  administrative  depart- 
ment, and  some  members  have  authority  over  many  thou- 
sands of  subordinate  officials 
and  employees.  For  the 
management  of  his  depart- 
ment each  Cabinet  member 
is  responsible  to  the  Presi- 
dent, who  appoints  him  for  a 
term  corresponding  to  his 
own,  but  who  may  remove 
him  at  will. 

(2)  The  members,  either 
individually  or  as  a  group, 
act  as  advisers  to  the  Presi- 
dent. Washington  was  in 
the  habit  of  consulting  them 
separately,  but  in  a  short 
time  the  custom  was  estab- 
lished of  holding  meetings 
at  which  all  the  members  might  express  opinions  on  ques- 
tions of  public  policy.  Now  regular  meetings  are  held  at  a 
fixed  hour  twice  a  week  and  special  meetings  at  such  times 
as  the  President  wishes  them.  Sometimes  the  President  asks 
the  Cabinet  to  agree  on  a  policy  which  the  administration 
will  follow  in  dealing  with  a  certain  matter ;  but  he  reserves 
the  right  either  to  disagree  with  their  recommendations  or 
to  pursue  a  policy  on  his  own  responsibility,  as  Lincoln 
did  in  issuing  the  Emancipation  Proclamation.  The  mem- 
bers sometimes  differ  in  their  opinions;  but  if  a  member 
found  himself  seriously  or  repeatedly  at  variance  with  the 
President  or  his  associates,  he  would  probably  relieve  the 
embarrassment  of  the  situation  by  resigning. 

Show  how  Congress  might  exert  partial  control  over  the  Cabinet. 


Office  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury. 


186     National  Administrative  Departments 


107.  Comparison  with  the  English  System.  —  Although 
we  have  taken  the  word  "  Cabinet  "  from  the  English  govern- 
ment, their  Cabinet  is  so  different  from  ours  that  some  of 
the  distinctions  should  be  carefully  noticed. 


(1)  The  English  Cabinet 
members  have  seats  in 
Parliament. 

(2)  The  English  Cabinet 
proposes  the  important  laws 
of  Parliament  and  has  gen- 
eral control  of  Parliamen- 
tary proceedings. 

(3)  The  members  of  the 
English  Cabinet  belong  to 
the  party  which  controls 
the  House  of  Commons,  and 
will  resign  if  they  cannot 
keep  control  of  that  body. 
Their  term  of  office  depends 
on  their  ability  to  keep 
command  in  Parliament. 

(4)  The  offices  included  in 
the  English  Cabinet  some- 
times vary  in  different  minis- 
tries, and  the  pay  varies 
with  the  office. 

(5)  The  English  Cabinet 
act  as  a  unit  with  the  prime 
minister,  or  premier,  as  the 
real  head  of  the  government. 


Our  Cabinet  cannot  be 
members  of  Congress.  Why? 

Our  Cabinet  can  do  no 
more  than  recommend  that 
Congress  pass  a  bill  or  get  a 
member  to  introduce  a  bill 
as   a  favor. 

Our  Cabinet  are  usually 
members  of  the  President's 
party,  which  may  not  happen 
to  be  the  party  that  controls 
Congress.  They  may  stay 
in  office  as  long  as  they 
please  the  President,  subject 
only  to  the  impeachment 
power  of  Congress. 

The  membership  of  our 
Cabinet  does  not  vary  except 
as  new  offices  are  perma- 
nently added,  and  the  salary 
is  uniform  —  now  $12,000 
a  year. 

Our  Cabinet  do  not  have 
to  agree  on  all  matters.  No 
one  member  can  control  any 
officials  except  his  own  sub- 
ordinates, and  all  are  subject 
to  the  will  of  the  President. 


In  short,  the  United  States  has  the  presidential  system  of 
government,  with  responsibility  for  administration  centered 


State  Department 


187 


in  the  President's  hands.  England  has  the  parliamentary 
system,  with  responsibility  centered  in  the  Cabinet,  which 
is  really  a  committee  of  Parliament.  The  English  system 
makes  no  attempt  to  separate  the  three  departments  of 
government,  —  executive,  legislative,  and  judicial.  Most 
governments  follow  the  English  cabinet  system. 

Which  system  makes  it  easier  to  change  the  government  to  agree 
with  changes  in  public  sentiment?  How  far,  if  at  all,  would  you 
advise  either  Great  Britain  or  the  United  States  to  adopt  the  other's 
methods  of  government  ? 


108.  State  Department.  —  If  there  is  any  distinction  in 
rank  among  the  departments  in  the  Cabinet,  first  mention 
should  go  to  the  Department  of  State.  The  Secretary  of 
State  and  three  Assistant 
Secretaries  are  at  the 
head  of  it,  and  the  Coun- 
selor advises  it  on  points 
of  international  or  do- 
mestic law.  It  has  two 
kinds  of  work  to  per- 
form, which  do  not  have 
any  necessary  connec- 
tion with  each  other. 

(1)  The  department 
directs  the  administra- 
tion of  foreign  affairs.  It  deals  with  foreign  ministers  to 
this  country  and  has  supervision  over  our  own  representa- 
tives in  foreign  lands.  It  is  frequently  intrusted  with  the 
work,  of  making  treaties.  The  Secretary  of  State  should  be 
a  skilled  diplomat,  and  many  of  them  have  been  so.  Men 
like  Adams,  Seward,  Blaine,  and  Hay  rank  high  among  the 
diplomats  of  the  world. 

(2)  The  department  has  various  clerical  duties.  It  keeps 
the  originals  of  all  laws  and  treaties  and  causes  copies  of  them 
to  be  published.     It  also  has  charge  of  the  great  seal  of  the 


Entrance  to  the  State,  War,  and  Navy 
Building. 


188     National  Administrative  Departments 


Front  of  the  Treasury  Building. 


United  States,  which  must  appear  on  the  President's  procla- 
mations and  on  many  other  public  documents. 

109.  Treasury  Department.  —  The  Department  of  the 
Treasury  has  the  oversight  of  the  financial  affairs  of  the 
United  States.     The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  has  general 

responsibility  for  the 
management  of  the  entire 
department.  He  has 
three  Assistant  Secre- 
taries. 

The   Treasurer  of  the 

United  States  is  in  actual 

charge  of  the  keeping  of 

the  government's  money. 

The   Comptroller  of  the 

Currency  has  special 

duties  in  connection  with 

the  national  banks  of  the  country.     The  Register  of  the 

Treasury  keeps  a  record  of  all  paper  money,  bonds,  and  the 

like,  issued  by  the  government. 

The  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue  supervises  the 
collection  of  internal  taxes,  such  as  those  on  tobacco  and 
liquor.  The  Director  of  the  Mint  has  charge  of  the  coining 
of  money,  and  the  Superintendent  of  the  Bureau  of  Engraving 
and  Printing  has  charge  of  the  printing  of  the  paper  money 
and  certificates  of  all  kinds.  There  are  several  Auditors,  who 
inspect  the  accounts  of  the  other  Cabinet  departments. 

The  Secret  Service  was  originally  established  to  detect 
counterfeiters  and  so  was  placed  in  this  department,  al- 
though it  does  many  other  kinds  of  work.  The  Surgeon- 
General  of  the  Public  Health  Service  and  the  Captain 
Commanding  the  Coast  Guard,  under  whose  direction  is 
the  Life-Saving  Service,  are  other  officers  in  the  Treasury 
department  who  do  not  seem  to  have  any  special  reason  for 
being  in  that  department  rather  than  somewhere  else. 
The  total  number  of  clerks  in  customhouses,  tax  collectors, 


The  Army  189 

and  employees  of  all  grades  makes  the  payroll  of  the  Treasury 
department  a  very  extensive  one. 

110.  War  Department.  —  The  Department  of  War  has 
charge  of  the  United  States  Army  and  of  activities  connected 
with  the  national  defense,  such  as  the  fortification  of  the 
coasts  and  the  improvement  of  rivers  and  harbors.  One 
of  the  greatest  engineering  works  of  all  the  ages,  the  Panama 
Canal,  was  constructed  under  the  direction  of  Colonel 
George  W.  Goethals  and  his  assistants  from  the  Engineering 
Corps  of  the  army. 

At  the  head  of  the  Department  is  the  Secretary  of  War, 
with  three  assistants.  They  are  not  usually  military  men. 
The  management  of  the  department's  affairs  is  done  through 
several  bureaus,  such  as  those  headed  by  the  Quartermaster- 
General,  who  provides  supplies  for  the  army  except  food ; 
the  Commissary-General,  who  supplies  the  food ;  the  Chief 
of  Ordnance,  whose  work  is  to  provide  the  weapons ;  the 
Surgeon-General,  who  looks  after  the  army's  health,  and 
others. 

As  a  connecting  link  between  the  War  Department  and 
the  army  itself,  a  General  Staff  was  created  in  1903  on  the 
recommendation  of  President  Roosevelt  and  Secretary  Root. 
The  head  of  this  group  is  the  Chief  of  Staff,  who  is,  for  the 
time  being,  the  acting  head  of  the  army.  The  other  members 
are  army  officers  of  different  grades.  Their  work  is  to  recom- 
mend plans  for  national  defense,  to  make  suggestions  in 
regard  to  the  needs  of  the  army,  and  in  general  to  harmonize 
the  work  of  the  department  and  the  army. 

111.  The  Army.  —  All  able-bodied  men  of  the  ages  of  18 
to  45  inclusive  are  legally  included  in  the  militia,  and  are 
therefore  liable  to  be  called  on  for  military  service  in  times  of 
necessity.  Their  number  to-day  counts  up  over  20,000,000. 
But  only  a  small  fraction  of  these  have  the  least  idea  how  to 
use  a  gun  or  to  care  for  themselves  in  camp. 

In  time  of  war  such  ignorance  might  be  disastrous  to  the 
nation.     The  experiences  of  nations  in  the  great  world- 


190     National  Administrative  Departments 

§ 

conflict  have  convinced  many  Americans  that  every  man 
physically  capable  of  receiving  military  training  should  be 
compelled  to  have  a  certain  amount  of  it. 

The  American  people,  however,  like  the  British,  do  not 
take  kindly  to  compulsory  service  in  times  of  peace,  and  one 
cannot  now  predict  with  certainty  what  our  permanent 
policy  will  be.  The  entry  of  the  United  States  into  the 
Great  War  was  marked  by  one  great  change  from  our  past 
custom.     Instead  of  calling  for  volunteers  in  large  numbers, 

REGISTRATION  CERTIFICATE. 


To  whom  it  may  concern.  Greetings:      1iP^Litif&'      No. 


(This  number  mutt  correspond  with 
THESE  PRESENTS  ATTEST  \^W^  lhat  °°  ***  Regulation  Card.) 

That   in    accordance   with    the 

proclamation  of  the  President  of  the  United  States,  and  in  compliance  with  law, 


(Name)  (City  or  P.  O.) 

Precinct County  of ,  State  of 

has  submitted  himself  to  registration  and  has  by  me  been  duly  registered  this 
day  of .  1917. 


IUgiatrar. 

Certificate  of  Registration  under  Selective  Draft  Act  of  1917. 
Every  man  who  registered  received  one  of  these  certificates. 

Congress  passed  an  act  requiring  the  registration  for  possible 
service  of  all  men  of  the  ages  21  to  30  inclusive,  and  from  these, 
with  certain  exemptions,  troops  were  drawn.  Later  all  men 
within  the  militia  age  were  required  to  register.  3,700,000 
men  were  in  France  or  were  in  training  here  before  the 
armistice  was  signed  which  ended  the  fighting. 

Before  this  occurred,  Congress  had  raised  the  strength  of 
the  army  in  peace  time,  always  pitifully  small,  to  a  maximum 
of  175,000,  and  had  provided  for  bringing  the  National  Guard 
of  the  states  directly  under  federal  control.    In  addition  to 


Navy  Department 


191 


the  supply  of  trained  officers  furnished  by  the  National  Mili- 
tary Academy  at  West  Point,  N.  Y.,  special  training  camps 
for  officers  and  men  were  authorized  at  Plattsburg,  N.  Y., 
and  other  places.  Here  men  who  were  interested  in  military 
life  or  were  impelled  by  a  sense  of  duty  to  learn  something 
about  it,  were  given  an  acquaintance  with  it  without  being 
required  to  enlist  in  the  regular  army. 


A  Squad  at  the  Plattsburg  Training  Camp. 


John  D.  Rockefeller,  Jr.,  is  quoted  as  saying  that  compulsory 
military  training  for  all  men  would  be  the  strongest  possible  in- 
fluence toward  democracy.     Do  you  agree  with  him?    Why? 

112.  Navy  Department.  —  This  department  has  charge  of 
the  construction,  equipment,  and  repair  of  war  vessels, 
and  the  general  direction  of  their  operations.  Congress  has 
appropriated  money  for  building  a  government  armor 
plant  which  will  be  under  this  department's  direction.  The 
Naval  War  College  at  Newport  and  the  Naval  Academy  at 
Annapolis  are  also  controlled  by  it.  The  men  at  the  head  of 
the  department  are  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  and  one  Assist- 


192    National  Administrative  Departments 

ant  Secretary.  Presidents  have  been  known  to  appoint  men 
to  these  positions  who  have  seldom  been  aboard  a  warship. 

Several  bureaus  administer  the  work  of  the  department, 
such  as  the  Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks,  of  Ordnance,  of 
Steam  Engineering,  and  of  Construction  and  Repairs.  There 
is  a  General  Board,  composed  of  officers  whose  duty  it  is  to 
give  advice  and  recommendations  concerning  the  policy 
and  management  of  the  navy,  but  it  is  not  at  all  the  equiva- 
lent of  the  General  Staff  in  the  War  Department,  and  each 
bureau  operates  more  or  less  independently.  The  naval 
officers  of  high  rank  are  alternated  between  service  at  sea 
and  shore  duty  in  connection  with  one  of  the  bureaus  or 
elsewhere. 

113.  The  Navy.  —  The  opinion  has  been  common  in 
this  country  that  a  strong  navy  is  more  necessary  to  our 
safety  than  a  strong  army,  because  most  of  the  enemies 
whom  we  might  have  to  meet  could  approach  us  only  by  sea. 
After  years  of  neglect,  a  "  bigger  navy  "  policy  was  adopted 
and  ships  were  built  until  we  were  surpassed  only  by  Great 
Britain.  Before  the  Great  War  Germany  passed  us,  but 
we  have  now  regained  second  place.  Over  60,000  officers 
and  men  are  in  service  in  time  of  peace. 

One  unfortunate  feature  of  naval  construction  is  the  cost 
of  keeping  a  navy  up  to  date.  New  inventions  and  improve- 
ments have  followed  each  other  so  rapidly  that  a  ship  is 
hardly  more  than  completed  before  a  new  idea  in  construc- 
tion makes  it  a  back  number,  and  in  a  few  years  it  is  worth 
not  much  more  than  so  much  junk.  The  dreadnaught,  the 
battle  cruiser,  the  submarine,  and  the  aeroplane,  the  latter 
having  its  uses  on  both  land  and  sea,  have  shown  surprising 
developments  in  late  years.  Some  have  hesitated  to  favor 
spending  much  money  on  war  vessels  for  fear  it  would  be 
money  utterly  thrown  away.  Our  national  dock  yards  have 
been  used  chiefly  for  repair  work.  The  building  of  the  vessels 
has  most  often  been  done  by  contract  with  a  private  ship- 
building firm. 


The  Navy 


193 


Copyright,  Keystone  View  Co. 

War  Vessels  in  San  Diego  Harbor,  California. 
In  the  foreground  are  submarines,  with  larger  vessels  in  the  distance. 


Admitting  that  some  form  of  national  defense  is  necessary,  do 
you  favor  a  large  army  or  a  large  navy?  To  what  type  of  warship 
do  you  think  we  should  give  greatest  attention?  Does  Great 
Britain  need  a  navy  more  than  we  do  ? 


194     National  Administrative  Departments 

114.  Department  of  Justice.  —  Not  organized  as  a  depart- 
ment till  1870,  though  its  head,  the  Attorney-General,  was 
an  officer  in  the  first  of  our  Cabinets,  the  Department  of 
Justice  is  perhaps  the  least  known  of  any.  Yet  some  official 
of  the  department  conducts  every  case  in  the  federal  courts 
in  which  the  United  States  is  concerned.  And  the  Attorney- 
General  is  the  chief  adviser  of  the  President  and  other  federal 
officers  on  points  of  law  and  constitution.     Next  to  the 


'  Mail  Trucks  Loading  up  with  Sacks  to  be  Taken  to  the  Railroad 

Station  . 

Attorney-General  come  the  Solicitor-General,  seven  assist- 
ant attorneys-general,  and  a  solicitor  for  each  of  several 
ether  departments  of  the  Cabinet. 

115.  Post  Office  Department.  —  No  branch  of  the  national 
government  reaches  the  ordinary  citizen  as  directly  and  as 
often  as  the  Post  Office  Department.  The  carrier  who  brings 
the  mail  to  our  door  or  the  country  postmaster  who  hands 
it  out  from  the  office  window  is  a  familiar  figure  to  every 
child,  yet  they  are  just  as  truly  officers  of  the  United  States 
as  the  President  himself. 

It  is  a  great  business  that  Uncle  Sam  is  engaged  in,  this 
job  of  carrying  the  mail  —  one  of  the  very  few  business 


Post  Office  Department 


195 


enterprises,  in  fact,  that  he  conducts.  He  allows  no  one 
else  to  engage  in  the  same  business  and  does  not  care  very 
much  whether  he  makes  money  at  it  or  not.  For  his  main 
object  is  to  render  as  much  service  as  he  can,  and  some 
postmasters-general  have  cared 
too  little  whether  they  made  both 
ends  meet. 

Besides  carrying  letters,  cards, 
magazines,  papers,  and  parcels  of 
all  kinds,  and  exchanging  them 
with  other  countries  all  over  the 
globe,  the  department  conducts 
a  postal  savings  bank.  At  every 
office  of  importance  any  person 
may  open  a  savings  account  and 
deposit  a  sum  up  to  $2500  on 
which  the  government  will  pay 
2  per  cent  interest.  At  this  low 
rate  there  is  almost  no  competi- 
tion with  private  banks ;  but  as 
some  people  will  trust  the  gov- 
ernment with  money  which  they 

would  not  put  in  the  care  of  any  one  else,  money  is  brought 
into  circulation  which  otherwise  would  be  hidden  somewhere 
doing  nobody  any  good. 

The  Postmaster-General  is  the  head  of  the  department. 
There  are  four  assistant  postmasters-general  and  several 
chiefs  of  divisions  who  are  responsible  for  a  certain  part  of 
the  business.  There  are  about  54,000  post  offices  scattered 
all  over  the  country,  each  of  which  has  its  postmaster  and 
such  clerks  and  carriers  as  it  needs.  Very  many  rural  de- 
livery routes  have  been  established  in  late  years,  and  as  these 
take  the  farmer's  mail  almost  to  his  own  door  many  country 
post  offices  have  become  unnecessary.  The  salary  of  the 
postmaster  depends  on  the  amount  of  business  done  by 
the   office.    Formerly   appointments    were    made    on    the 


The  Postman. 


196     National  Administrative  Department 

recommendation  of  some  congressman  or  other  person  in  poli- 
tics; but  now  most  postmasters,  the  clerks  in  the  larger 
offices,  and  all  city  and  rural  carriers,  over  200,000  in  all,  must 
take  an  examination  before  being  appointed  and  are  chosen 
from  those  who  get  the  higher  marks  on  the  examination. 

Mail  matter  is  classified  as  first  class  if  it  is  written  or 
sealed;  second  class  if  magazines,  newspapers,  or  other 
periodicals  published  at  least  four  times  a  year ;  third  class 
if  circulars,  photographs,  or  other  printed  matter  than  books 
and  periodicals ;  and  fourth  class  or  parcel  post  if  merchan- 
dise or  books.  In  carrying  parcels  and  selling  money  orders 
competition  has  been  permitted,  and  a  person  might  take  his 
choice  between  having  Uncle  Sam  or  a  private  express  com- 
pany do  it  for  him.  During  the  Great  War  the  express  busi- 
ness was  taken  over  by  the  government. 

Find  out  the  main  facts  about  the  rates  charged  for  the  different 
classes.  Is  there  any  reason  why  the  postage  on  newspapers  and 
magazines  should  be  so  much  less  than  it  costs  to  carry  them  ? 

116.  Department  of  the  Interior.  —  Perhaps  the  easiest 
way  to  explain  the  varied  duties  of  the  Department  of  the 
Interior  is  to  say  that  it  supervises  all  the  activities  of  the 
federal  government  in  domestic  matters  which  are  not 
assigned  to  some  other  department.  At  its  head  are  the 
Secretary  of  the  Interior  and  two  Assistant  Secretaries,  and 
it  is  subdivided  into  several  bureaus,  each  presided  over  by  a 
commissioner  or  director.  In  explaining  briefly  the  duties  of 
these  officers  we  can  sketch  the  functions  of  the  department. 

The  Commissioner  of  the  General  Land  Office  has  charge 
of  the  public  lands  of  the  United  States  and  superintends  the 
surveying  and  selling  of  them. 

The  Commissioner  of  Pensions  directs  the  examination  of 
claims  for  pensions  for  those  who  have  served  in  the  army 
or  navy  of  the  United  States  or  who  were  dependent  upon 
them,  and  oversees  the  regular  quarterly  payment  of  pen- 
sions to  those  whose  names  are  on  the  rolls.     Our  govern- 


Department  of  the  Interior  197 

ment  has  been  very  generous  in  this  respect.  There  have 
been  at  times  a  million  names  on  the  list  at  once,  and  a  total 
of  over  four  billion  dollars  has  been  paid  from  the  treasury 
for  this  purpose  since  the  Civil  War. 

Should  a  pension  be  regarded  as  a  right  or  a  favor? 

The  Commissioner  of  Indian  Affairs  looks  after  the  interests 
of  the  Indians  who  are  still  living  as  tribes  on  reservations. 
Their  education,  the  protection  of  their  rights,  the  assign- 
ment of  land  to  them  as  individuals,  are  examples  of  his 


Jupiter  Terrace,  Yellowstone  Park. 
The  National  Parks  are  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 

duties.  No  longer  can  our  government  be  accused  of  treating 
the  red  men  unjustly,  but  the  reform  was  a  long  time  coming. 
The  Commissioner  of  Patents  has  charge  of  the  grant- 
ing of  patents.  These  give  to  an  inventor  the  right  to  con- 
trol the  manufacture  and  sale  of  an  invention  for  a  period  of 
17  years.  The  commissioner  has  a  considerable  force  of 
assistants  and  examiners  to  look  into  the  various  claims  and 
decide  which  are  just  and  worthy.  The  Patent  Office, 
which  preserves  plans  or  models  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
inventions  of  all  grades  of  merit,  is  a  remarkable  institution. 


198     National  Administrative  Departments 


The  Commissioner  of  Education  has  the  duty  of  collecting 
facts  and  figures  in  regard  to  educational  conditions  in  the 
country  and  of  publishing  them  for  the  benefit  of  school 
officials  and  the  public.  He  has  no  actual  authority  over 
the  schools  in  any  state,  but  indirectly  has  been  able  to  give 

inspiration  and  help  and 
advice  that  have  often 
been  valuable. 

The  Director  of  the 
Geological  Survey  is  in 
charge  of  the  study  of 
the  geological  formation 
of  the  different  parts  of 
the  land.  Especially  his 
office  tries  to  discover 
the  location  and  extent 
of  the  mineral  deposits 
of  the  country. 

The  Director  of  the 
Reclamation  Service  is 
concerned  with  the  irri- 
gation of  the  desert  lands 
and  the  construction  of 
the  great  dams  and  reser- 
voirs which  provide  the 
water  to  make  these  lands 
fit  for  cultivation.  Much 
money  has  been  invested 
by  the  government  in  this  enterprise,  with  results  that  are 
wonderfully  encouraging. 

The  Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Mines  conducts  the  work 
of  the  government  for  the  preservation  of  the  mineral  re- 
sources of  the  country,  the  wise  and  careful  operations  of 
the  mines,  and  the  safety  of  the  men  employed  in  them. 

117.  Department  of  Agriculture.  —  Beginning  in  a  modest 
way  its  work  along  lines  intended  to  benefit  the  farmers  of 


Courtesy  of  the  Reclamation  Service 

Shoshone  Dam,  Wyoming. 

This  is   328   feet   high   and  200  feet 
across  the  top. 


Department  of  Agriculture 


199 


the  country,  the  Department  of  Agriculture  has  taken  up  a 
wide  range  of  activities  important  to  the  health  and  prosperity 
of  all  classes  of  people.  It  is  headed  by  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture  and  the  Assistant  Secretary,  and  its  work  is 
divided  among  several  bureaus. 


«H-„  1      1 

tl  — JHPP^8^ 

'Jiffy 

¥MW% 

«**« 

Waiting  for  Inspection. 

A  section  of  a  large  stockyard,  showing  its  general  structure.  Federal 
inspectors  are  stationed  at  all  such  places  where  interstate  trade  is  con- 
cerned. 


Best  known  of  these  is  doubtless  the  Weather  Bureau. 
Weather  statistics  are  twice  daily  gathered  by  it  from  all 
sections  of  the  country,  and  forecasts  are  published  which 
have  been  the  means  of  saving  lives  and  property  to  an  extent 
which  cannot  easily  be  measured  but  which  must  be  very 
great. 

The  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  inspects  meat  intended  for 
interstate  or  foreign  shipment,  and  tries  to  prevent  diseases 
among  cattle. 


200     National  Administrative  Departments 

The  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  tries  to  find  methods  of 
improving  crops,  introduces  new  varieties,  and  studies  the 
prevention  of  the  growth  of  weeds  and  harmful  plants.     . 

The  Bureau  of  Forestry  has  charge  of  the  national  forest 
reserves,  plants  trees  for  future  use,  and  has  tried  to  arouse 
the  people  to  the  dangers  of  wanton  cutting  down  of  our 


The  Entomologist  studies  bugs  and  insects  and  the  means 
of  preventing  their  ravages. 

The  Experiment  Stations  at  various  places,  especially  at 
the  state  colleges  aided  by  appropriations  from  the  national 
treasury,  try  to  learn  the  crops  that  can  best  be  grown  in 
certain  sections  and  the  conditions  most  favorable  to  their 
growth. 

The  Chemist  examines  foodstuffs  and  drugs  that  are  on 
the  market,  to  find  whether  they  contain  adulterations  or 
poisonous  or  otherwise  harmful  ingredients.'  His  work  is 
of  great  value  to  the  public  health. 

118.  Department  of  Commerce.  —  The  name  of  this 
department  suggests  its  work  —  to  attend  to  the  interests 
and  needs  of  American  commerce  and  trade.  Like  several 
others  it  has  a  Secretary  and  an  Assistant  Secretary,  and  is 
organized  in  bureaus.  Of  these  the  Census  Bureau  is  the 
most  familiar.  Every  ten  years  it  takes  a  complete  census 
of  the  population  of  the  United  States,  and  in  the  meantime 
is  engaged  in  tabulating  its  returns  and  in  gathering  and 
publishing  statistics  concerning  the  industries  and  the  people 
of  the  land.  The  Bureaus  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Com- 
merce, of  Lighthouses,  of  Fisheries,  of  Navigation,  and  of 
Standards,  and  the  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  are  the  most 
important  phases  of  this  department's  activities. 

119.  Department  of  Labor.  —  The  infant  among  the 
administrative  departments  is  the  Department  of  Labor. 
It  interests  itself  in  gathering  information  about  conditions 
in  the  world  of  labor  and  industry  and  in  trying  to  improve 
them.     The  Bureau  of  Immigration  receives  and  inspects 


Interstate  Commerce  Commission        £01 

the  hundreds  of  thousands  of  foreigners  who  come  to  our 
ports  every  year  and  tries  to  direct  to  a  proper  place  those 
who  are  admitted. 

Hand  in  hand  with  this  bureau  works  the  Bureau  of 
Naturalization.  Its  heads  try  to  keep  in  touch  with  the 
foreigners  who  have  come  here  to  stay  and  to  direct  their 
steps  toward  American  citizenship.  It  cooperates  with 
night  schools  in  the  cities  and  otherwise  does  everything 
possible  to  further  the  steps  of  the  immigrant  toward  in- 
telligent citizenship. 

The  Children's  Bureau  investigates  anything  that  con- 
cerns the  health,  the  occupations,  or  the  welfare  of  children. 
The  Women's  Bureau  is  intended  to  do  a  similar  work  for 
women,  especially  those  engaged  in  industry. 

120.  Interstate  Commerce  Commission. — Three  impor- 
tant commissions  deserve  special  mention.  They  are  not 
directly  connected  with  any  department  of  the  Cabinet,  but 
are  responsible  to  the  President  and  make  reports  directly 
to  him  or  to  Congress. 

The  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  was  organized  by 
Congress  in  1887,  to  take  advantage  of  the  neglected  power 
to  regulate  interstate  commerce.  Since  then  its  powers 
have  been  greatly  increased.  It  has  nine  members,  each 
of  whom  gets  a  salary  of  $10,000  a  year.  They  earn  it. 
They  have  jurisdiction  over  all  matters  arising  under  the 
laws  governing  interstate  commerce  as  far  as  they  affect 
railroads,  express  companies,  telegraph  and  telephone 
companies,  sleeping  car  companies,  and  oil  pipe  lines. 

They  investigate  supposed  violations  of  these  laws  and  have 
power  to  bring  such  cases  before  the  courts.  Changes  in 
rates  which  are  proposed  by  the  companies  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  Commission  must  have  its  approval,  and  the 
Commission  itself  has  the  right  to  fix  the  maximum  rate 
which  may  be  charged. 


202     National  Administrative  Departments 

Appointments  to  this  Commission  have  been  made  by 
the  presidents  without  regard  to  politics,  and  the  value  of 
its  services  in  securing  fair  treatment  to  shippers  and  the 
general  public  is  not  likely  to  be  reckoned  too  highly.  Safety 
in  travel  and  sound  management  of  the  roads  themselves 
can  be  partly  credited,  too,  to  the  work  of  the  Commission. 

121.  Civil  Service  Commission.  —  It  is  too  bad  that  the 
American  people  had  to  let  the  "  spoils  system  "  kill  a  presi- 
dent before  they  realized  how  vicious  it  was.  From  the  time 
of  Andrew  Jackson  this  custom  of  turning  out  the  members  of 
the  defeated  party  from  the  offices  which  they  held  was  the 
regular  rule  in  the  national  government,  as  it  had  been  in 
some  of  the  states  from  even  an  earlier  time.  President 
Grant  and  a  few  reformers  had  tried  to  make  a  change  in 
this  practice,  but  they  got  almost  no  support  from  Congress. 

But  the  murder  of  President  Garfield  by  a  disappointed 
office-seeker  brought  up  the  evil  in  such  a  way  that  it  could 
no  longer  be  neglected.  Finally  in  1883  the  Civil  Service 
Commission  was  organized.  It  received  authority  to  make 
rules  to  govern  the  examination  of  public  officers,  and  to 
investigate  violations  of  laws  affecting  officeholding. 

The  President  has  the  right  to  designate  the  offices  for 
which  a  competitive  examination  must  be  taken.  This  can- 
not be  required  of  the  highest  offices  in  any  department; 
but  postmasters,  mail  clerks  and  carriers,  clerks  in  the  depart- 
ments at  Washington  and  elsewhere,  and  almost  all  appointees 
who  need  technical  or  scientific  knowledge,  must  first  pass  an 
examination. 

All  examination  papers  are  marked  by  examiners  connected 
with  the  Commission,  and  when  a  vacancy  occurs  in  an  office 
in  the  "  classified  service  "  the  person  appointed  is  to  be 
taken  from  the  three  whose  marks  in  the  examination  for 
that  position  were  at  the  head  of  the  list.  No  one  would 
pretend  that  a  person's  ability  can  be  fully  tested  by  such  an 
examination,  but  at  least  it  assures  the  appointment  of 
persons  who  possess  a  reasonable  amount  of  general  intelli- 


Special  Institutions  203 

gence.  And  for  some  offices  the  examinations  require  special 
training  of  a  high  order. 

Of  the  460,000  persons  now  in  the  public  service  about  two 
thirds  had  to  pass  examinations  before  they  were  appointed. 
President  Roosevelt  added  more  offices  to  the  list  to  be  filled 
by  examination  than  all  the  other  presidents.  Cleveland, 
Taft,  and  Wilson  also  deserve  much  credit  for  similar  service 
to  the  cause  of  good  government. 

The  Civil  Service  Commission  has  three  members  appointed 
by  the  President,  with  a  chief  examiner  and  such  other  clerks 
as  they  need.  The  commissioners  must  not  all  belong  to 
the  same  political  party. 

122.  Federal  Trade  Commission.  —  A  late  feature  in 
the  line  of  federal  commissions  is  the  Federal  Trade  Com- 
mission. The  purpose  of  this  body  is  to  supervise  the 
business  operations  of  large  companies  so  as  to  prevent  the 
use  of  unfair  methods.  It  has  power  to  order  a  corporation 
to  stop  a  practice  which  it  considers  unjust.  The  Commis- 
sion may  require  reports  from  corporations,  and  may  make 
recommendations  to  Congress  in  regard  to  trade  conditions 
affecting  the  United  States.    It  has  five  members. 

123.  Special  Institutions.  —  Several  institutions  with 
headquarters  in  the  city  of  Washington  exist  more  or  less 
independently  of  other  branches  of  the  government  and  are 
important  on  their  own  account.  We  shall  mention  four 
of  these: 

The  Library  of  Congress  is  one  of  the  largest  and  finest  in 
the  world.  It  has  at  present  over  2,000,000  publications  on 
its  shelves.  In  connection  with  the  Library  is  conducted  the 
granting  of  copyrights.  A  copyright  may  be  granted  to 
the  author  or  publisher  of  a  book,  picture,  piece  of  music, 
or  other  composition,  allowing  him  the  sole  benefit  of  its 
publication  for  28  years,  and  it  may  be  renewed  by  him  or  his 
heirs  for  28  years  more. 

The  Smithsonian  Institution  and  National  Museum  were 
founded  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  scientific  studies  and 


£04     National  Administrative  Departments 

preserving  a  collection  of  objects  of  historical  or  scientific 
interest.  The  institution  was  started  with  money  left  by  an 
Englishman  named  James  Smithson.  It  has  assembled  a 
marvelous  collection  of  articles  which  could  not  possibly  be 
duplicated  anywhere. 

The  Government   Printing  Office,   presided  over   by  the 
Public  Printer,  is  the  largest  printing  office  in  the  world.     It 


ElflBlwMit 

• 

NbikHH    ^H^^HKr^Sirrf 

■      k  r;    I 

. 

Front  of  the  Congressional  Library,  Washington. 

prints  the  Congressional  Record  and  the  reports  of  the  various 
departments.  Several  of  the  departments,  notably  the 
Department  of  the  Interior  and  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, issue  a  large  number  of  pamphlets  and  bulletins 
containing  a  great  variety  of  helpful  information.  These 
they  either  give  away  or  sell  at  cost  to  those  who  wish  them. 
The  Pan-American  Union  was  organized  for  the  purpose 
of  collecting  facts  and  spreading  information  about  the 
countries  of  the  New  World  so  that  they  may  know  more 
about  each  other.  The  Director  and  his  Assistant  try  to 
create  a  friendly  sentiment  and  common  sympathy  among 
the  republics  of  North,  Central,  and  South  America.  Their 
headquarters  are  in  a  fine  building  given  by  Andrew  Carnegie. 


Questions  205 

The  support  of  this  Union  comes  partly  from  the  other 
countries  of  the  New  World. 

In  some  places  graduating  classes  in  high  schools  make  a  trip  to 
Washington  instead  of  spending  large  sums  on  elaborate  graduation 
exercises.     Do  you  think  this  is  worth  while? 

QUESTIONS 

What  offices  compose  the  Cabinet?  What  constitutional  basis 
is  there  for  its  existence  ?     What  are  its  two  chief  functions  ? 

Point  out  definite  contrasts  between  our  Cabinet  and  the  English 
body  which  is  called  by  the  same  name. 

Explain  the  duties  and  organization  of  the  State  Department. 
Name  some  of  our  great  Secretaries  of  State,  and  mention  some  of 
their  special  services. 

What  are  the  special  duties  of  the  principal  officers  in  the  Treasury 
Department  ? 

Explain  the  services  and  organization  of  the  War  Department. 
Who  are  legally  included  in  the  militia  f  What  had  been  our  policy 
in  regard  to  a  standing  army  prior  to  the  Great  War  ?  Do  you  think 
that  was  the  right  idea  ?  What  changes  in  our  military  system  were 
caused  by  our  entrance  into  the  War?  What  is  the  significance  of 
the  terms  National  Guard,  West  Point,  Plattsburg  f 

State  the  functions  and  organization  of  the  Navy  Department. 
Compare  our  army  and  navy  with  those  of  other  countries.  Should 
we  try  to  keep  up  with  them  ? 

Explain  the  work  of  the  Attorney-General  and  the  department 
of  which  he  is  the  head. 

What  is  the  importance  of  the  Post  Office  Department  to  the 
ordinary  citizen?  Of  what  use  are  the  postal  savings  banks? 
Explain  the  classification  of  post  offices.  How  many  are  there? 
How  are  postmasters  chosen?  How  are  the  different  kinds  of  mail 
classified  and  what  are  the  rates?  Does  the  post  office  make 
money?     Should  it? 

Name  eight  important  bureaus  or  divisions  in  the  Department  of 
the  Interior.  Explain  briefly  the  work  of  each.  What  is  a  patent  ? 
On  what  terms  may  it  be  obtained? 

Is  the  Department  of  Agriculture  of  greater  service  to  farmers  or 
to  other  people  ?  Mention  the  principal  officials  connected  with  it, 
and  tell  their  duties. 

What  are  the  principal  matters  attended  to  by  the  Department  of 
Commerce? 


206     National  Administrative  Departments 

Describe  the  main  services  of  the  Department  of  Labor. 

What  authority  does  the  Constitution  give  for  the  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission?     What  is  the  nature  of  its  work? 

Why  was  the  Civil  Service  Commission  created?  How  does  it 
carry  on  its  work?  What  presidents  have  been  particularly  in- 
terested in  it  ?  Should  all  offices  be  filled  only  by  persons  who  have 
gained  first  rank  in  a  competitive  examination  ? 

For  what  purpose  does  the  Federal  Trade  Commission  exist? 
Do  you  think  its  powers  should  be  extended  ? 

Mention  four  important  special  institutions  in  Washington  and 
explain  their  purpose.     What  is  a  copyright?     How  is  it  secured? 


SPECIAL   TOPICS 

A  Sketch  of  the  Present  Cabinet. 

The  Treasury  Building. 

The  Bureau  of  Engraving  and  Printing. 

The  Life  and  Work  of  a  Soldier. 

The  Life  and  Work  of  a  Sailor. 

West  Point  and  Annapolis. 

Resolved,  that  the  money  spent  on  an  army  and  navy,  beyond 
what  is  needed  for  police  service,  is  wasted. 

The  Different  Types  of  War  Vessels. 

The  Autobiography  of  a  Letter. 

The  Dead  Letter  Office. 

The  Patent  Office. 

The  Weather  Bureau. 

The  Census  Bureau. 

How  the  Immigrants  are  Received. 

A  Civil  Service  Examination.     (Let  the  class  try  one.) 

Each  of  the  four  special  institutions  mentioned  will  also  make 
an  interesting  study  if  time  permits. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

OUR  NATIONAL  OOUETS 


Justice,  sir,  is  the  greatest  interest  of  man  on  earth.  —  Webster. 


124.  Services  and  Importance.  —  No  other  courts  in  the 
world  have  so  great  power  and  importance  as  those  of  the 
United  States.  Nowhere  else  is  the  judicial  department 
considered  on  a  plane  of  equality  with  the  executive  and 
legislative,  and  nowhere  else  does  it  have  power  to  set  aside 
rulings  or  acts  of  the  other  departments. 

The  kinds  of  cases  tried  in  federal  courts  may  be  grouped 
in  three  classes: 

(1)  All  cases  arising  in  the  enforcement  of  any  law  of 
Congress,  of  the  Constitution,  or  of  any  treaties  made  in 
accordance  with  it. 

(2)  A  class  of  cases  which  might  not  receive  unprejudiced 
consideration  in  the  courts  of  a  state ;  such  as,  disputes  be- 
tween the  states,  between  citizens  of  different  states,  or 
between  a  state  and  a  foreign  country  or  the  citizens  of 
either.  In  order  to  limit  the  number  of  cases  that  the 
federal  courts  shall  have  to  deal  with,  Congress  has  pro- 
vided that  a  suit  between  citizens  of  different  states  must 
be  brought  in  the  state  courts  if  the  amount  involved  is  not 
more  than  $3000. 

(3)  A  class  of  cases  which  would  not  properly  come  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  any  particular  state.  This  includes : 
cases  affecting  ambassadors  and  other  foreign  representatives, 
because  their  personal  dignity  gives  them  too  much  impor- 

207 


208  Our  National  Courts 

tance  in  our  international  relations  to  make  it  wise  to  allow 
a  state  court  to  deal  with  them  ;  crimes  committed  or 
cases  arising  on  the  waters  beyond  the  limits  of  any  state ; 
and  cases  to  which  the  United  States  itself  is  a  party. 

The  federal  courts  have  been  very  careful  to  keep  their 
activities  within  the  limits  given  them  by  the  Constitution. 
They  will  not  take  upon  themselves  any  responsibility  which 
the  Constitution  gives  to  any  other  branch  of  the  government. 
They  refuse  to  give  general  opinions,  and  insist  on  having  a 
particular  case  brought  before  them,  before  they  will  render 
any  decision  on  the  constitutionality  or  meaning  of  a  law. 

125.  Relation  of  State  and  Federal  Courts.  —  We  should 
understand  clearly  that  the  federal  courts  are  created  for 
the  special  purpose  of  dealing  with  the  kinds  of  cases  we 
have  just  mentioned,  and  that  all  others  are  reserved  wholly 
to  the  state  courts.  Every  crime  committed  or  other  case 
arising  under  the  laws  of  a  state,  even  so  serious  an  offense 
as  murder,  is  dealt  with  as  a  rule  by  the  state  courts  alone. 

But  if  the  defeated  party  in  a  case  in  a  state  court  de- 
clares that  the  law  or  constitutional  provision  which  con- 
cerns his  case  is  contrary  to  a  law  or  treaty  of  the  United 
States,  or  if  his  rights  under  the  United  States  Constitution 
are  being  disregarded,  he  may  appeal  his  case  from  the  state 
sourt  to  the  federal  court.  The  final  decision  in  any  case 
of  this  kind  rests  with  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States,  and  whatever  that  court  decrees  must  be  accepted 
without  question  by  the  courts  of  every  state.  Unless 
this  were  so,  no  strong  central  government  could  exist. 

May  a  state  court  declare  a  law  of  Congress  unconstitutional? 

126.  District  Courts.  —  Congress  is  authorized  by  the 
Constitution  to  establish  courts  of  lower  grade  than  the  Su- 
preme Court.  Exercising  this  power,  Congress  passed  the 
famous  Judiciary  Act  of  1789,  of  which  Oliver  Ellsworth 
was  the  principal  author.  So  well  drawn  was  this  law 
that  we  hold  to-day  to  the  plan  of  organization  set  forth  iD 


Circuit  Courts  of  Appeals  209 

it.  Two  grades  of  courts  are  provided  in  addition  to  the 
Supreme  Court,  which  is  required  by  the  Constitution  itself. 

There  is  at  least  one  federal  District  Court  in  each  state, 
and  the  larger  states  are  divided  into  two  or  three  districts, 
or  even  four  in  New  York  and  Texas.  Each  district  court 
has  at  least  one  judge.  In  each  district  there  is  also  a 
United  States  district  attorney,  who  has  charge  of  prose- 
cuting offenders  against  the  national  laws,  and  a  United 
States  marshal,  who  makes  arrests  and  performs  such  other 
duties  as  the  courts  may  require,  including  the  care  of  con- 
victed persons  until  they  have  been  safely  placed  in  a  fed- 
eral prison  or  have  otherwise  performed  their  sentence. 

There  are  also  United  States  Commissioners  in  each  dis- 
trict who  give  hearings  to  people  accused  of  breaking  a 
national  law  and  decide  whether  the  evidence  is  sufficient 
to  make  the  trial  of  the  case  worth  while. 

These  courts  have  original  jurisdiction  only.  That  is, 
they  try  only  cases  which  have  not  been  heard  in  any  other 
court.  Every  kind  of  crime  or  lawsuit  that  may  be  tried 
in  federal  courts  is  brought  before  a  district  court,  except 
two  rare  kinds  of  cases  that  are  reserved  for  the  Supreme 
Court.  Cases  are  tried  before  a  jury,  and  the  method  of 
trial  is  in  general  like  that  in  the  ordinary  county  court 
which  we  shall  later  describe.     (§§157,  158.) 

127.  Circuit  Courts  of  Appeals.  —  A  person  dissatisfied 
with  the  rulings  of  a  judge,  or  with  some  other  feature  of 
the  trial  of  his  case  in  the  district  court,  may  appeal  to  a 
higher  court  known  as  the  circuit  court  of  appeals.  For  this 
purpose  the  country  is  divided  into  nine  circuits,  each  one 
of  which  contains  at  least  three  states.  From  two  to  five 
circuit  judges  —  32  in  all  —  are  appointed  in  each  circuit. 

They  hold  court  without  a  jury  at  different  places  in  their 
circuit,  and  hear  appeals  from  the  district  courts  in  that 
circuit.  Unless  the  case  brought  before  them  involves  a 
question  of  constitutionality,  or  for  some  other  reason  re- 
quires a  ruling  from  the  Supreme  Court  on  such  a  point  as 


210  Our  National  Courts 

the  interpretation  of  a  law,  the  decision  of  the  Circuit  Court 
is  final  and  ends  the  case. 

128.  Supreme  Court  —  The  Supreme  Court  consists  of 
a  chief  justice  and  eight  associate  justices.  It  meets  only 
in  Washington.  Like  the  Circuit  Court  of  Appeals,  it  has 
no  jury,  and  except  in  rare  cases  hears  no  witnesses.  Law- 
yers present  the  argument  on  each  side  of  the  case,  and  a 
majority  of  the  justices  is  sufficient  to  render  an  opinion. 

It  has  original  jurisdiction  in  two  kinds  of  cases  —  those 
concerning  ambassadors  and  other  foreign  representatives, 
and  those  in  which  a  state  is  a  party.  In  other  cases  its 
jurisdiction  is  appellate,  as  the  Circuit  Court's  jurisdiction 
is  entirely  —  that  is,  the  cases  to  be  heard  have  been  ap- 
pealed from  some  lower  court.  Cases  may  be  appealed 
directly  to  the  Supreme  Court  from  the  district  courts  or 
from  the  highest  court  of  a  state  or  territory,  if  the  point  at 
issue  involves  the  United  States  Constitution  or  the  final 
interpretation  of  a  national  law. 

The  authority  of  the  Supreme  Court  is  greater  than  that 
of  any  other  court  in  the  world.  Its  opinion  in  all  matters 
brought  before  it  is  final,  and  every  other  branch  of  the 
government  is  expected  to  abide  by  its  decision.  No  matter 
how  much  Congress  or  the  President  may  wish  to  see  a  law 
in  force,  if  the  Supreme  Court  says  the  law  is  unconstitu- 
tional, no  citizen  need  feel  bound  to  obey  it. 

Yet  even  the  Supreme  Court  would  not  wantonly  exer- 
cise this  great  power ;  for  it  must  depend  upon  the  executive 
branch  to  carry  out  its  decisions,  and  Congress  may  by  law 
alter  the  organization  of  the  court  itself.  The  need  for  the 
three  departments  to  work  in  harmony  and  with  mutual 
respect  is  clear.  So  wisely  has  the  Supreme  Court  conducted 
itself  in  almost  every  instance  that  the  finality  of  its  opinion 
is  generally  accepted  by  the  country  as  a  matter  of  course. 

Is  the  Supreme  Court  in  1920  bound  to  adhere  to  the  same  prin- 
ciples in  its  decisions  as  the  Court  in  1820  ?  Andrew  Jackson,  when 
President,  is  said  to  have  remarked  on  one  occasion,  "John  Marshall 


Term  and  Salary  of  Judicial  Officers     211 

has  made  his  decision.    Now  let  him  enforce  it."    What  do  you 
think  of  a  remark  of  that  kind  ? 

129.  Special  Courts.  —  A  few  special  courts  have  been 
created  by  Congress  to  deal  with  matters  of  peculiar  char- 
acter. The  Court  of  Claims,  made  up  of  five  judges  meet- 
ing at  Washington,  hears  all  money  claims  against  the 
United  States  other  than  pensions.  If  it  decides  in  favor 
of  a  claimant,  he  may  then  go  before  Congress  and  ask  for 
an  appropriation  to  pay  off  the  claim.  The  Court  of  Cus- 
toms Appeals  is  another  court  of  five  judges  with  power  to 
make  rulings  on  points  arising  under  our  tariff  laws.  The 
courts  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  by  reason  of  their  loca- 
tion, sometimes  have  to  deal  with  cases  that  would  not 
come  under  an  ordinary  state  court.  Each  territory  has  its 
own  courts,  too. 

130.  Term  and  Salary  of  Judicial  Officers.  —  All  federal 
judges  are  appointed  by  the  President  with  the  approval  of 
the  Senate,  and  their  term  is  for  good  behavior,  which  gen- 
erally means  for  life.  They  can  be  removed  only  by  impeach- 
ment proceedings.  They  are  separated  as  far  as  possible 
from  any  temptation  on  account  of  popular  prejudice  or  po- 
litical influence  to  consider  anything  else  than  their  honest 
convictions  in  making  a  decision. 

The  supreme  justices  get  $14,500  a  year,  with  an  extra 
$500  for  the  chief  justice.  Judges  in  the  Circuit  Court  and 
the  Court  of  Customs  Appeals  receive  $8500;  in  the  Dis- 
trict Courts  and  the  Court  of  Claims  $7500,  with  $500  more 
for  the  chief  justice  of  the  Court  of  Claims.  At  the  age  of 
seventy  a  judge  may  resign  or  retire  with  his  salary  con- 
tinued at  the  same  rate.  But  many  judges  prefer  to  continue 
all  or  a  part  of  their  work  after  reaching  seventy. 

The  life  term  does  not  apply  to  district  attorneys  and 
marshals  or  to  territorial  judges.  They  are  also  appointed 
by  the  President,  and  their  term  is  generally  four  years. 

Is  the  life  term  for  judges  inconsistent  with  the  general  ideas  of 
American  government  ? 


£1£  Our  National  Courts 


QUESTIONS 

Of  what  unusual  importance  are  the  national  courts  in  this 
country?  Why  are  national  courts  needed?  What  three  classes 
of  cases  are  tried  in  them  ?  Give  examples  under  each  class.  If  the 
President  wished  to  know  how  the  Supreme  Court  would  rule  on  a 
matter  in  which  he  was  interested,  how  could  he  find  out  ?  Is  this 
a  good  plan? 

What  relation  do  the  state  courts  bear  to  the  federal  courts? 
Explain  fully  your  answer  to  this  question:  If  John  Smith  were 
convicted  of  murder  or  of  counterfeiting  in  the  courts  of  the  state 
of  Virginia,  could  he  appeal  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States? 

What  are  the  three  grades  of  federal  courts?  Explain  the 
organization  of  each  grade.  What  special  work  is  assigned  to  each? 
Make  clear  the  particular  importance  of  the  Supreme  Court.  Who 
are  its  present  members  and  how  long  have  they  served?  What 
special  federal  courts  are  there  outside  of  the  regular  system? 
State  the  term  and  salary  of  federal  judges. 

Are  the  federal  courts  in  any  way  dependent  upon  Congress  or 
the  President? 

SPECIAL  TOPICS 

The  Supreme  Court :  Its  Members  and  Its  Customs. 
Resolved,  that  judges  should  be  elected  by  popular  vote. 
John  Marshall. 
Some  Important  Supreme  Court  Decisions. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  ABOUT  NATIONAL  GOVEBNMENT 


Our  Country  .  .  .  however  bounded  or  described,  and  be  the  meas- 
urements more  or  less,— still  our  country,  to  be  cherished  in  all  our 
hearts  and  defended  by  all  our  hands.  —  Winthrop. 


131.  Removals  from  Office. — Sad  but  true  it  is  that  some- 
times Americans  who  have  no  right  to  ask  such  honor  get 
into  office.  Occasionally  one  is  dishonest.  More  often 
the  fault  is  plain  unfitness  for  the  position.  For  the  good 
of  the  nation  such  men  ought  not  to  be  allowed  to  remain 
in  public  service. 

We  have  already  noticed  that  either  house  of  Congress 
may  expel  one  of  its  own  members  by  a  two-thirds  vote, 
and  that  any  persons  appointed  by  the  President  may  also 
be  removed  by  him,  except  judges.  The  same  rule  applies 
to  persons  appointed  by  lower  administrative  officers;  but 
those  appointed  under  civil  service  rules  may  not  be  re- 
moved without  cause,  and  they  may  receive  a  formal  hearing 
of  the  charges  against  them  if  they  wish  it. 

One  method  provided  by  the  Constitution  may  be  used 
against  a  president,  vice-president,  judge,  or  any  adminis- 
trative officer.  That  is  impeachment.  Formal  charges  of 
impeachment  may  be  drawn  up  by  vote  of  the  House  of 
Representatives.  The  impeached  person  is  then  tried  be- 
fore the  Senate.  If  the  president  is  under  impeachment, 
the  chief  justice  presides,  but  in  other  cases  the  vice-presi- 
dent or  president  pro  tempore.  If  two  thirds  of  the  sen- 
ators present  vote  against  him,  the  accused  person  is  found 

213 


214       Facts  About  National  Government 

guilty.  In  that  case  he  must  be  removed  from  office,  and 
may  be  disqualified  from  holding  any  other  office  under  the 
United  States. 

Thus  far  impeachment  proceedings  have  been  used  only 
against  men  holding  prominent  offices  and  accused  of  really 
serious  misconduct.  Experience  shows  that  it  is  much 
easier  to  impeach  than  to  convict,  for  out  of  ten  impeach- 
ments the  Senate  convicted  only  three  persons.  Some 
other  means  than  impeachment  has  always  been  found 
sufficient  in  the  cases  where  lower  officers  were  to  be  re- 
moved. 

132.  Treason.  —  Lest  the  government  should  become 
high-handed  and  deny  to  people  the  right  to  criticize  it  rea- 
sonably, the  Constitution  declares  that  only  two  offenses 
can  be  considered  treason.  These  are  making  war  upon  the 
United  States,  and  giving  assistance  to  the  enemies  of  the 
country.  Moreover,  it  is  also  required  that  a  person  shall 
not  be  convicted  of  this  grave  crime  unless  he  admit  his 
guilt  in  court  or  two  witnesses  testify  to  the  same  treason- 
able act. 

Under  such  restrictions  few  convictions  for  treason  are 
likely  in  this  country.  The  famous  case  against  Aaron  Burr 
fell  through  because  of  lack  of  witnesses,  and  not  even  after 
the  Civil  War  was  any  one  punished  for  treason,  although 
in  a  certain  sense  those  who  fought  for  the  Confederacy 
made  war  upon  the  United  States.  Congress  may  deter- 
mine what  the  punishment  for  treason  shall  be,  but  no  one 
other  than  the  guilty  party  himself  shall  lose  any  of  his  rights 
on  account  of  that  person's  fault. 

The  proposal  has  been  made  that  it  should  be  considered  treason 
to  attempt  to  kill  the  President.  Would  you  favor  such  a  defini- 
tion of  the  term?  Is  the  constitutional  limitation  of  the  term  too 
narrow? 

133.  Amending  the  Constitution.  —  Times  change,  and 
the  needs  of  government  change  with  them.  He  would  be 
a  foolish  constitution-maker  who  did  not  provide  some  way 


The  Amendments  215 

to  keep  the  constitution  up  to  date  by  such  changes  and 
additions  as  experience  might  show  to  be  necessary.  But 
in  keeping  with  the  ideas  of  years  ago  the  process  of  amend- 
ment was  made  fairly  difficult,  so  that  no  amendment  is 
likely  to  be  adopted  which  is  not  demanded  by  a  large 
majority  of  the  people. 

There  are  two  ways  of  proposing  amendments :  (1)  Con- 
gress may  propose  them  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  both  houses. 
(2)  A  special  convention  must  be  called  by  Congress  to 
propose  them  if  the  legislatures  of  two  thirds  of  the  states 
request  it.  Only  the  first  of  these  methods  has  thus  far  been 
used. 

No  proposed  amendment  will  become  a  part  of  the  Con- 
stitution until  it  has  been  accepted  by  three  fourths  of  the 
states.  The  approval  or  disapproval  of  the  states  may  be 
given  either  by  their  legislatures  or  by  special  conventions 
called  for  that  particular  purpose.  Congress  decides  which 
method  of  ratification  shall  be  used.  Thus  far  it  has  always 
referred  an  amendment  to  the  state  legislatures. 

What  advantage  does  either  method  have  over  the  other? 

There  is  no  fixed  time  limit  to  the  process  of  ratification. 
No  amendment  thus  far  added  has  required  more  than  four 
years  for  ratification.  In  proposing  the  prohibition  amend- 
ment in  1917  Congress  provided  that  it  would  not  be  valid 
unless  ratified  within  seven  years,  but  the  propriety  of 
such  a  restriction  is  questioned  by  some  able  constitutional 
lawyers. 

134.  The  Amendments.  —  Eighteen  amendments  have 
been  made.  The  first  ten  are  in  the  nature  of  a  Bill  of  Rights. 
They  were  ratified  in  1791.  They  were  really  unnecessary, 
but  were  added  to  make  it  certain  that  the  making  of 
the  new  government  did  not  take  away  from  the  people  any 
rights  which  they  had  previously  enjoyed. 

The  Eleventh  Amendment  was  adopted  in  1798.  It  forbids 
the  bringing  of  a  suit  in  the  national  courts  against  a  state 


216       Facts  About  National  Government 

by  a  citizen  of  another  state.  The  amendment  was  a  mis- 
take, and  was  the  result  of  an  unreasoning  fear  that  the 
national  courts  might  disregard  the  rights  of  a  state. 

The  Twelfth  Amendment,  adopted  in  1804,  instructed  the 
presidential  electors  to  vote  for  president  and  vice-president 
separately. 

The  Thirteenth,  Fourteenth,  and  Fifteenth,  adopted  in 
1865,  1868,  and  1870,  grew  out  of  the  issues  and  problems 
of  the  Civil  War.  Slavery  was  abolished  and  the  attempt 
was  made  to  give  the  former  slaves  all  the  privileges  of 
citizenship,  including  that  of  voting.  The  Fourteenth  and 
Fifteenth  have  been  in  part  evaded  in  the  South. 

The  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Amendments  were  ratified 
by  the  required  number  of  states  in  1913.  The  former 
definitely  gave  Congress  the  right  to  levy  an  income  tax. 
The  latter  provided  for  the  election  of  United  States  senators 
by  popular  vote.  The  Eighteenth,  ratified  in  1919,  forbade 
the  manufacture  or  distribution  of  intoxicating  liquors  in 
the  United  States  for  use  as  a  beverage.  It  went  into  effect 
one  year  from  the  date  of  its  adoption.  The .  Nineteenth, 
ratified  in  1920,  forbade  the  states  to  deny  women  the  right 
to  vote. 

Numerous  other  amendments  have  been  discussed  in  Con- 
gress from  time  to  time,  and  some  have  even  been  laid  before 
the  states. 

135.  The  "  Unwritten  Constitution."  —  Like  every  other 
people,  we  are  in  the  habit  of  observing  certain  customs 
and  practices  in  government  just  as  faithfully  as  if  they  were 
definitely  written  in  our  Constitution.  Probably  it  is  not 
wrong  to  call  these  customs,  as  some  do,  the  "unwritten 
constitution  "  of  this  country. 

The  custom  that  presidential  electors  shall  always  vote 
for  the  regular  candidate  of  their  party  seems  to  be  firmly 
established.  The  existence  of  the  Cabinet  could  not  be  more 
evident  if  a  thousand  laws  were  passed  in  regard  to  it.  That 
the  United  States  may  annex  territory  anywhere  will  no 


The  Territories 


ai7 


longer  be  questioned.    The  vital  part  in  legislation  taken 
by  the  committees  of  Congress  shows  no  sign  of  change. 

One  would  best  not  be  too  hasty  in  assuming  that  a  prac- 
tice is  permanent  because  it  has  been  observed  for  a  long 
time.  Only  a  few  years  ago  it  seemed  settled  that  the  speaker 
of  the  House  would  always  appoint  the  House  committees, 
but  that  rule  has  been  set  aside.     Events  of  recent  years 


Copyright,  Keystone  View  Co. 

Harbor,  San  Juan,  Porto  Rico. 

seem  to  indicate  that  the  people  may  some  time  disregard 
the  hoary  tradition  which  would  refuse  a  man  more  than 
eight  years  in  the  presidency.  Yet  it  certainly  is  plain  that 
some  customs  may  become  just  as  positively  a  part  of  our 
political  practices  as  a  law  or  a  constitution  itself. 

136.  The  Territories.  —  During  practically  all  of  our 
national  existence  there  has  been  a  considerable  amount 
of  land  that  was  either  thinly  settled  or  wholly  unoccupied 
except  by  savages.  About  the  close  of  the  Revolution 
several  of  the  states  turned  over  to  the  national  government 


218       Facts  About  National  Government 

much  wild  land  which  they  had  claimed.  To  govern  some 
of  this  land  the  Congress  of  the  old  Confederation  passed 
the  famous  Northwest  Territory  Act  of  1787. 

So  well  thought  out  was  this  law  that  its  general  features 
have  been  regularly  observed  from  that  day  to  this  in  deal- 
ing with  regions  not  ready  to  be  made  into  states.  To  settle 
any  doubt  about  the  right  to  govern  such  territory,  the 
Constitution  specifically  declares  that  "  Congress  shall  have 


Copyright,  Underwood  &  Underwood, 

Douglas,  Alaska. 

The  steep  wooded  slopes  furnish   much    lumber.    With  all  its  evident 
newness,  the  town  has  electric  lights  and  a  fine  school  building. 


power  to  make  all  needful  rules  and  regulations  respecting 
the  territory  or  other  property  of  the  United  States." 

The  form  of  government  known  as  a  territory  was  de- 
vised to  prepare  for  full  self-government  a  region  which  was 
expected  to  become  in  time  a  state.  A  governor,  other 
executive  officers,  and  judges  are  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent for  a  term,  usually,  of  four  years.  A  territorial  legis- 
lature of  two  houses  is  elected  by  the  voters  of  the  territory, 
but  its  laws  are  subject  to  the  veto  of  the  governor  and  to 
the  disapproval  of  Congress  as  well.     The  voters  of  the 


Colonies  or  Possessions  219 

territory  elect  a  Delegate,  who  has  a  seat  in  the  national 
House  of  Representatives  and  may  take  part  in  debates, 
but  has  no  vote. 

Only  six  states  of  the  Union  besides  the  original  thirteen 
did  not  go  through  this  territorial  stage,  —  Vermont,  Ken- 
tucky, Maine,  Texas,  California,  and  West  Virginia.  At 
present  Hawaii  and  Alaska  are  territories,  and  under  the 
law  of  1917  the  government  of  Porto  Rico  is  very  nearly  the 
same.     None  of  these  seem  likely  to  become  a  state  very  soon. 

137.  Colonies  or  Possessions.  —  Other  lands  owned  and 
governed  by  the  United  States  are  called  colonies,  depend- 
encies, or  possessions.  Their  relation  to  our  national  gov- 
ernment does  not  differ  much  from  the  relations  of  the  well- 
managed  British  colonies  to  their  mother  country,  or  the 
royal  colony  in  America  before  the  Revolution.  The  chief 
difference  between  these  possessions  and  the  territories  is 
that  the  possessions  are  given  whatever  form  of  government 
seems  best  suited  to  them,  without  thought  of  whether  they 
will  ever  become  states  or  not. 

The  islands  of  Guam  and  Tutuila  and  the  new  Virgin 
Islands  acquired  from  Denmark  are  directly  under  the 
authority  of  officers  of  the  navy.  The  Panama  Canal 
Zone  is  managed  by  a  civil  governor  with  several  sub- 
ordinate departments. 

The  Philippines  have  furnished  the  most  serious  problems 
in  our  government  of  colonies,  because  of  their  situation  and 
the  various  races  and  stages  of  development  that  have  ex- 
isted there.  Our  policy  has  been  to  give  them  steadily  more 
and  more  of  responsibility  for  their  own  administration  as 
fast  as  they  became  fitted  to  exercise  it.  They  have  now  a 
governor-general,  and  a  vice-governor,  appointed  by  the 
President,  who  must  be  Americans,  three  other  executive 
officers  appointed  by  the  President,  who  may  be  Filipinos, 
and  a  legislature  composed  of  a  senate  and  a  house  of  rep- 
resentatives elected  by  the  men  of  voting  age  who  can  read 
and  write  some  language  or  dialect.    The  Philippines  elect 


220       Facts  About  National  Government 

two   commissioners,   who  attend    our    national   House  of 
Representatives. 


Copyright,  Keystone  View  Co. 


House  Boats  at  Manila. 

These  boats  are  the  permanent  homes  of  many  families.  The  view  in  the 
distance  shows  that  Manila  possesses  many  features  of  a  live  modern 
city. 

Whether  the  Philippines  shall  be  permanently  retained 
under  the  ownership  of  the  United  States  or  given  their  inde- 
pendence has  been  one  of  the  notable  disputed  questions  of 


District  of  Columbia  221 

public  policy  since  the  islands  were  acquired.  Unfortunately 
the  merits  of  the  question  have  been  obscured  by  mixing  it 
with  party  politics.  The  latest  law  for  Philippine  govern- 
ment declares  it  to  be  the  intention  of  the  United  States  to 
give  the  islands  their  independence  when  they  are  ready  for 
it.  But  this  declaration  is  so  indefinite  that  one  can  hardly 
say  that  we  are  absolutely  committed  to  any  specific  policy. 

Discuss  the  desirability  and  justice  of  Philippine  independence. 

The  decisions  of  the  Supreme  Court  sustain  Congress  in 
the  right  to  pass  any  laws  it  wishes  concerning  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  the  territories,  and  the  possessions,  with- 
out regard  to  the  acts  of  any  territorial  legislatures.  In 
the  possessions,  there  may  even  be  different  tariff  laws  from 
those  applying  elsewhere,  and  the  people  may  receive  all, 
a  part,  or  none  at  all  of  the  rights  of  citizens  of  the  United 
States,  as  Congress  may  decide. 

138.  District  of  Columbia.  —  The  Constitution  gives  Con- 
gress full  power  to  control  the  seat  of  government  and  any 
other  government  property,  such  as  forts,  arsenals,  dockyards, 
and  other  public  buildings.  As  at  present  governed,  the 
District  is  treated  simply  like  so  much  property.  Its  affairs 
are  managed  by  a  board  of  three  commissioners  appointed  by 
the  President.  Congress  itself  acts  as  the  law-making  body. 
The  cost  of  government  is  paid  half  from  the  national  treas- 
ury and  half  from  taxes  on  private  property  in  the  District. 

The  permanent  residents  of  the  District  do  not  vote  for 
any  officers  whatever  and  have  no  part  in  their  own  gov- 
ernment. Nevertheless  the  city  of  Washington,  with  the 
Capitol,  the  Library  of  Congress,  the  White  House,  the  many 
other  public  buildings,  the  beautiful  streets  and  parks,  is 
a  most  attractive  city  and  its  people  appear  to  be  contented 
with  their  government. 

Is  the  government  of  the  District  an  example  of  "  taxation  without 
representation"  or  " government  by  consent  of  the  governed"?  Is 
it  justifiable? 


9M       Facts  About  National  Government 

139.  Protectorates.  —  There  are  certain  regions  over 
which  the  United  States  government  exercises  supervision 
but  which  it  does  not  own  or  govern  entirely.  Cuba,  for 
instance,  is  subject  to  intervention  from  the  United  States 
to  put  down  internal  disorder.  Its  foreign  affairs  and 
financial  management  must  also  be  satisfactory  to  our 
government.  The  financial  administration  of  the  republics 
of  San  Domingo  and  Haiti  has  been  assumed  by  the  United 
States.  With  the  republics  of  Panama  and  Nicaragua  we 
have  an  understanding  which  gives  us  the  right  to  offer  sug- 
gestions in  connection  with  certain  phases  of  their  govern- 
ment. The  relation  which  we  hold  to  these  smaller  coun- 
tries we  speak  of  as  a  protectorate. 

The  chief  reason  for  our  taking  up  any  responsibility  for 
them  lies  in  their  incapacity  to  manage  their  own  finances. 
Many  Europeans  have  money  interests  in  these  places. 
Since  the  United  States  through  its  Monroe  Doctrine  has 
commanded  Europe  to  refrain  from  interfering  in  the  New 
World,  the  European  governments  rightly  expect  that  we 
will  assure  fair  and  honest  treatment  of  their  rights  in  this 
hemisphere.  Partly  to  remove  any  excuse  for  European 
intervention  on  account  of  these  little  countries  not  paying 
their  just  debts,  and  partly  to  protect  our  own  interests  in 
the  same  little  countries,  we  found  it  necessary  steadily  to 
bring  them  more  closely  under  our  supervision.  One  of  the 
greatest  of  our  recent  problems  has  been  whether  our  interest 
or  duty  should  cause  us  to  intervene  in  the  much  larger 
republic  of  Mexico.  President  Wilson  believed  that  it  was 
best  to  let  Mexico  "  work  out  her  own  salvation,"  and  events 
seem  to  show  the  wisdom  of  his  policy. 

Are  there  any  reasons  why  Mexico  should  be  treated  differently 
from  Haiti? 

QUESTIONS 

What  is  impeachment?  Who  may  be  impeached?  Explain 
the  method  followed  in  impeachment  proceedings?  How  may  a 
Congressman  be  removed?  a  postmaster? 


Special  Topics  223 

How  does  our  Constitution  define  treason  ?  What  is  provided 
in  regard  to  its  punishment  ? 

Why  should  any  constitution  provide  a  way  for  its  amendment  ? 
Should  that  way  be  easy  or  hard  ?  What  methods  does  the  national 
Constitution  offer?  Is  any  change  in  the  process  of  amendment 
desirable?  How  many  amendments  have  been  made?  Explain 
briefly  the  nature  of  them.  What  other  proposed  amendments  have 
received  serious  consideration?  Are  there  any  at  the  present  time 
which  you  would  like  to  see  adopted  ? 

Give  examples  to  show  that  we  have  something  like  an  "un- 
written constitution"  in  this  country.  Is  it  best  that  these  customs 
shall  not  be  included  in  the  written  constitution? 

Tell  the  circumstances  under  which  our  first  territories  were 
organized.  Under  whose  authority  are  they  governed?  What 
territories  do  we  have  now  ?     Describe  their  form  of  government. 

Distinguish  between  a  territory  and  a  possession  or  colony. 
Name  our  colonial  possessions  and  tell  the  method  of  government  in 
operation  in  each.  Why  is  the  problem  of  Philippine  government 
somewhat  more  difficult  than  that  of  the  other  possessions?  Does 
"the  Constitution  follow  the  flag"? 

How  is  the  District  of  Columbia  governed?  Is  this  method 
wise  and  fair? 

What  is  a  protectorate?  With  what  countries  do  we  hold  that 
relation  and  why  ?  To  what  extent  does  the  Monroe  Doctrine  bind 
us  in  our  relation  with  New  or  Old  World  countries? 


SPECIAL  TOPICS 

The  Impeachment  of  Andrew  Johnson. 

The  Trial  of  Aaron  Burr  for  Treason. 

Resolved,  that  constitutional  amendments  should  be  adopted  by 
majority  vote  of  the  people. 

Hawaii,  an  Island  Paradise. 

Alaska :  Its  Needs  and  Possibilities. 

What  the  Philippines  Owe  to  the  United  States. 

Resolved,  that  the  United  States  should  retain  the  Philippine 
Islands  permanently. 

Our  West  Indian  Possessions. 

The  Story  of  the  Panama  Canal. 

Resolved,  that  the  Monroe  Doctrine  should  be  abandoned  as  a 
feature  of  our  foreign  policy. 


CHAPTER  XV 

OUR  RELATIONS  WITH  OTHER  COUNTRIES 


We  shall  never  war  except  for  peace.  —  McKinley. 
The  world  must  be  made  safe  for  democracy.  —  Wilson. 
The  crest  and  crowning  of  all  good, 
Life's  final  star,  is  Brotherhood.—  Markham. 


140.  Basis  of  International  Relations.  —  The  time  has 
passed,  if  it  ever  existed,  when  a  nation  would  be  justified  in 
trying  to  provide  wholly  for  its  own  needs  without  having 
anything  to  do  with  other  nations.  Commerce,  the  spread 
of  knowledge  about  other  countries,  a  common  interest  in 
religion,  learning,  and  the  arts  of  civilization,  have  drawn  all 
parts  of  the  world  more  closely  together  than  any  two  ad- 
joining countries  could  have  been  in  ancient  or  medieval 
times. 

When  questions  came  up  from  time  to  time  in  which  two 
or  more  nations  felt  a  common  interest,  and  they  wished 
either  to  settle  a  quarrel  or  prevent  one,  it  came  to  be  the 
custom  to  enter  into  a  formal  agreement,  known  as  a  treaty, 
by  which  each  party  agreed  to  do  or  not  to  do  certain  things. 
Other  customs  which  might  not  happen  to  be  written  down 
in  any  treaty  came  to  be  observed  regularly  by  states  in  their 
dealings  with  each  other. 

A  Dutch  jurist  called  Hugo  Grotius  published  in  1625  a 
book  which  received  surprising  attention  from  the  monarchs 
of  his  day,  and  which  set  forth  clearly  the  principles  which 
ought  to  guide  states  in  their  relations  in  both  peace  and 
war.     From  his  day  to  ours  the  principles  which  he  laid  down 

224 


Rights  of  States  225 

have  been  expanded  and  made  clear  by  state  papers  of 
various  kinds,  peace  conferences,  and  other  methods,  until 
we  have  a  fairly  definite  system  of  principles  which  we  call 
International  Law. 

International  Law  is  defined  by  Professor  Lawrence  as 
"  the  rules  which  determine  the  conduct  of  the  general  body 
of  civilized  states  in  their  dealings  with  one  another."  In 
one  important  respect  it  differs  from  other  law  —  there  is 
no  sovereign  authority  to  enforce  it.  It  must  depend  upon 
the  moral  sentiment  of  the  civilized  world.  In  case  a  state 
deliberately  disregards  it,  war  may  be  the  only  means  of  com- 
pelling such  a  state  to  respect  its  rules.  Notice  that  in 
this  chapter  we  use  the  word  "  state  "  in  its  broad,  general 
sense.  It  means  an  independent  country,  not  one  of  the 
parts  of  our  Union. 

Could  the  United  States  supply  all  the  needs  of  its  people  in 
peace  or  war? 

141.  Rights  of  States.  —  It  is  generally  agreed  that  a 
state  has  a  right  to  decide  upon  its  own  form  of  govern- 
ment and  to  manage  its  own  internal  affairs  as  long  as  it 
protects  the  life  and  property  of  the  citizens  of  other  states 
who  have  interests  there.  A  state  has  jurisdiction  over 
all  the  land  and  water  within  its  boundaries,  and  over 
the  waters  for  three  miles  from  the  coast.  All  persons 
and  things  within  the  borders  of  a  state  are  subject  to  its 
jurisdiction,  with  the  exception  of  foreign  sovereigns  or  their 
representatives. 

Why  was  the  "  three  mile  limit  "  agreed  upon  ?  If  the  rule  were 
being  made  new  to-day,  do  you  think  that  distance  would  be 
adopted  ? 

Pirates  may  be  dealt  with  by  any  state  that  gets  hold  of 
them,  but  other  criminals  are  not  subject  to  punishment  by 
a  state  where  their  crime  was  not  committed.  Most  civ- 
ilized nations  now  have  extradition  treaties  in  force,  under 
which  a  runaway  criminal  will  be  returned  for  trial  to  the  * 

>  v. 


226      Our  Relations  With  Other  Countries 

country  where  the  crime  was  committed,  unless  it  was  a 
"  political  "  offense,  such  as  taking  part  in  rebellion. 

142.  Foreign  Representatives.  —  In  order  to  carry  on 
negotiations  with  other  governments  and  to  look  out  for  its 
own  interests,  modern  states  regularly  send  persons  to  reside 
in  other  countries  and  to  represent  them  there.  The  foreign 
representatives  of  the  United  States  are  under  the  direction 
of  the  Department  of  State.  They  are  classified  as  diplo- 
matic representatives  and  consuls. 

The  diplomatic  representatives  include :  (1)  Ambassadors. 
These  were  once  the  personal  representatives  from  the 
head  of  one  government  to  the  head  of  another,  and  are  al- 
ways recognized  as  of  higher  rank  than  any  other.  We 
send  them  now  to  14  of  the  larger  countries.  An  English- 
man once  defined  an  ambassador  as  "  a  person  sent  to  lie 
abroad  for  the  benefit  of  his  country."  Proficiency  in  that 
line  is  no  longer  considered  essential,  and  that  fact  shows 
the  change  in  the  nature  of  diplomacy  as  compared  with 
what  it  used  to  be.  (2)  Envoys  extraordinary  and  ministers 
plenipotentiary.  Their  duties  are  about  the  same  as  those 
of  ambassadors,  the  difference  being  chiefly  one  of  rank. 
We  send  persons  with  this  title  to  the  civilized  nations 
to  whom  we  do  not  send  ambassadors.  (3)  Charges  d'affaires 
and  other  minor  officers.  They  do  not  at  ordinary  times 
exercise  much  responsibility,  but  may  sometimes  be  en- 
trusted with  a  special  mission  or  occasionally  be  left  in 
temporary  charge  of  an  embassy. 

Consuls  are  stationed  in  important  cities  all  over  the  globe. 
Their  duties  are :  (1)  to  assist,  in  any  proper  way,  American 
citizens  who  may  come  into  their  neighborhood,  such  as 
protecting  them  from  harm,  making  out  legal  papers,  or 
communicating  with  the  home  country;  (2)  to  act  as  the 
business  agents  of  the  United  States,  keeping  an  eye  on  trade 
conditions,  the  prices  of  commodities,  openings  for  American 
business,  and  the  like. 

Positions  in  the  consular  service  as  well  as  some  in  the 


Enforcement  of  Treaties  and  Obligations     227 

diplomatic  service,  are  now  generally  rilled  through  civil 
service  examination.  The  salaries  paid  by  the  United 
States  in  either  the  diplomatic  or  consular  service  are  not 
large,  in  comparison  with  those  paid  by  other  countries. 
Only  a  man  with  a  private  income  will  risk  the  drain  on  his 
pocketbook  produced  by  residence  in  the  great  European 
capitals  in  the  station  of  an  ambassador. 

A  diplomatic  representative  takes  the  place  of  his  sover- 
eign, and  therefore  is  not  subject  to  the  laws  of  the  country 
where  he  is  stationed,  but  to  those  of  his  own  nation.  To 
a  less  degree  the  same  exemption  applies  to  members  of  the 
minister's  family  and  to  his  servants. 

If,  however,  a  minister  so  conducts  himself  as  to  be  per- 
sonally objectionable  —  "  persona  non  grata  "  —  the  gov- 
ernment to  which  he  was  sent  may  demand  that  he  be 
recalled.  Washington's  request  for  the  recall  of  the  French 
minister  Genet,  and  Wilson's  of  the  Austrian  ambassador 
Dumba,  are  notable  instances  of  the  exercise  of  this  right. 
If  the  reason  is  merely  a  personal  one,  the  other  country  has 
no  right  to  take  offense.  Usually,  in  fact,  a  government  will 
inquire  before  sending  an  ambassador  whether  a  certain 
particular  person  will  be  acceptable. 

The  chauffeur  of  the  British  ambassador  was  once  arrested  by  a 
local  constable  for  speeding.  What  constitutional  or  international 
bearing  would  this  case  have  ? 

143.  Enforcement  of  Treaties  and  Obligations.  — "  In 
the  eyes  of  international  law  treaties  are  made  to  be  kept." 
And  yet  is  there  anything  more  to  back  up  a  treaty  than  is 
behind  international  law  itself,  if  a  state  sees  fit  to  violate 
it?  Unfortunately  there  is  not.  The  shock  to  the  moral 
sense  of  many  neutral  nations  caused  by  Germany's  inva- 
sion of  Belgium  in  1914  shows  how  sacred  the  thought  of  a 
treaty  is,  in  general ;  for  Belgium's  safety  was  supposed  to 
be  guaranteed  by  an  international  treaty.  Yet  there  was 
nothing  that  could  be  done  about  it  by  a  neutral  except  to 


228     Our  Relations  With  Other  Countries 


Flags  of  Three  Allies. 
Great  Britain,  United  States,  France. 


protest.  No  matter  how  wicked  the  act  might  appear,  war  was 
the  only  penalty  that  was  available ;  for  Germany  did  not  ask 
the  opinion  of  any  other  nation  before  entering  Belgium. 

Fortunately,  treaty  keeping  is  more  common  than  treaty 
breaking,  and  a  treaty  that  was  honestly  made  in  an  effort 

to  be  fair  to  all  concerned 
is  seldom  broken.  A 
treaty  which  has  ceased 
to  be  fair  and  reasonable 
may  be  annulled,  if  the 
state  wishing  to  do  so 
gives  proper  notice  of  its 
intentions. 

144.  War.  —  The  last 
resort  in  settling  disputes 
is  war  —  that  is,  it  should 
be  the  last.  It  is  justified  only  (1)  in  national  self-defense 
to  protect  a  nation's  citizens  or  its  territory  or  honor ;  (2)  to 
secure  necessary  reparation  for  grievous  wrongs ;  or  (3)  to 
avert  a  threatened  injury  or  a  crime  against  civilization. 

The  extreme  "  pacifist  "  of  to-day  would  say  that  war 
is  never  justifiable.  In  one  sense  that  is  true,  for  war  set- 
tles nothing  except  which  party  is  the  stronger,  and  may 
not  even  do  that.  But  until  all  nations  follow  the  Golden 
Rule  in  dealing  with  others  some  will  have  to  choose  be- 
tween war  and  submission  to  wrong.  Back  of  all  govern- 
ment, even  good  government,  is  force. 

It  is  the  duty  of  a  state  which  makes  war  to  indicate  its 
intention  in  some  way,  so  that  its  own  people  and  others 
who  may  be  affected  may  suit  their  affairs  to  the  threatened 
change  in  conditions.  Often  a  formal  declaration  is  issued ; 
sometimes  the  recall  of  an  ambassador  from  a  foreign  court 
and  the  dismissal  of  that  state's  representative  from  the  home 
court  is  done  under  such  circumstances  as  to  amount  to  a 
declaration  of  war. 

Is  it  humanly  possible  for  a  world  without  war  to  exist? 


Effects  of  War  on  Persons  and  Things     229 

146.  Effects  of  War  on  Persons  and  Things.  —  When 
war  breaks  out,  all  states  automatically  become  either 
belligerents,  taking  part  in  it,  or  neutrals,  remaining  at  peace 
and  not  assisting  either  side.  All  individuals,  including 
those  in  the  belligerent  countries,  are  either  combatants, 
who  are  connected  directly  with  the  righting  force,  or  non- 
combatants,  who  do  not  take  part  in  or  directly  support 


Copyright,  N.  G.  Moser,  Underwood  &  UitfLerwood 

U.  S.  S.  Nevada. 
This  is  one  of  our  newest  dreadnoughts.    The  use  of  oil  and  improved 
methods  of   firing  boilers  make   good  speed    possible  with   very  little 
smoke. 

military  operations.     Surgeons,  nurses,  and  chaplains,  even 
though  in  an  army,  are  treated  as  noncombatants. 

All  property  is  contraband  or  noncontraband.  By  con- 
traband is  meant  that  which  is  useful  in  carrying  on  military 
operations.  Inventive  genius  has  greatly  increased  the  num- 
ber of  articles  which  can  be  of  military  use,  with  the  result 
that  commodities,  such  as  rubber  and  cotton,  which  once 
would  never  have  been  thought  to  possess  military  value, 
have  been  included  in  the  lists  of  contraband  goods  an- 
nounced by  governments  recently. 


230     Our  Relations  With  Other  Countries 

A  careful  distinction  must  be  drawn  between  the  govern- 
ment of  a  neutral  state  and  its  citizens.  Neutral  private 
citizens  have  a  right  to  continue  relations  and  carry  on 
trade  with  either  party,  even  to  the  extent  of  selling  them 
military  supplies.  If  individual  citizens  leave  a  neutral 
country  and  enlist  in  the  service  of  a  belligerent,  the  neutral 
government  will  take  no  notice  of  it  unless  the  movement 


Small  Canadian  Custom  House,  Cardinal,  Ontario. 

The  special  duty  of  these  soldiers  was  to  guard  a  near-by  canal  from  pos- 
sible damage  by  German  sympathizers.  Nowhere  on  our  whole  Canadian 
frontier  is  there  anything  to  suggest  hostile  relations  between  Canada  and 
the  United  States. 


becomes  open  and  extensive;  but  persons  who  enlist  in 
foreign  service  cannot  demand  protection  from  their  own 
government  while  engaged  abroad. 

146.  Arbitration,  —  The  terrible  conflict  of  1914-18  im- 
pressed upon  every  thoughtful  mind  the  feeling  that  some 
other  way  than  war  must  be  afforded  to  settle  international 
disputes.  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  have  settled 
more  disputes  peacefully  than  any  other  modern  states,  and 


The  League  of  Nations  231 

several  of  them  were  settled  by  arbitration.  Arbitration 
means  the  calling  upon  impartial  representatives  of  dis- 
interested parties  to  decide  or  help  to  decide  matters  in  con- 
troversy. 

The  international  conferences  which  met  at  the  Hague  in 
1899  and  1907  caused  the  establishment  of  a  Court  of  Arbi- 
tration to  which  nations  might  refer  cases  in  dispute.  Its 
services  were  employed  several  times  and  its  decisions  were 
always  accepted.  In  1914,  however,  Austria  refused  to 
permit  the  reference  to  the  Court  of  the  situation  which  was 
made  the  excuse  for  starting  the  Great  War. 

147.  The  League  of  Nations.  —  President  Wilson  and  the 
other  leaders  of  the  Peace  Conference  at  Versailles  in  1919 
were  convinced  that  some  means  of  averting  future  wars 
must  be  sought  if  the  world  was  to  be  safe.  They  succeeded 
in  formulating  a  covenant  for  a  League  of  Nations  of  which 
all  well-disposed  peoples  might  become  members.  This 
League  has  a  council  supposed  to  contain  one  representative 
each  from  nine  nations,  the  United  States,  the  British  Em- 
pire, France,  Italy,  and  Japan,  and  four  others  selected  by 
the  assembly.  In  this  assembly  each  member  state  has 
from  one  to  three  delegates,  but  only  one  vote.  The  execu- 
tive council  is  to  choose  a  secretary-general,  whose  office  is 
to  be  permanently  maintained.  A  permanent  court  of  inter- 
national justice  has  been  provided  for.  The  seat  of  the 
League  is  at  Geneva. 

All  international  disputes  which  cannot  be  settled  by  the 
nations  concerned  must  be  submitted  to  arbitration.  Na- 
tions which  are  unwilling  to  abide  by  the  rules  and  decisions 
of  the  League  are  to  be  boycotted  by  the  other  nations,  and 
the  executive  council  of  the  League  may  in  extreme  cases 
arrange  for  a  military  and  naval  force  to  compel  nations  to 
conduct  themselves  properly.  National  armaments  are  to 
be  reduced  and  the  private  manufacture  of  arms  restricted 
as  far  as  practicable.  All  treaties  must  be  registered  with 
the  secretary-general  and  published  by  him. 


232     Our  Relations  With  Other  Countries 

Is  this  all  a  dream?  Why  need  it  be  only  a  dream  unless  some 
nations  want  something  else  than  justice  and  a  square  deal?  Do 
you  think  that  the  maintenance  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine  by  the 
United  States  is  an  aid  or  a  hindrance  to  world  peace?  What  prob- 
lems are  likely  to  cause  the  most  difficulty  for  the  League  of  Na- 
tions? Is  there  any  reason  why  the  United  States  should  hesitate 
about  participating  in  such  a  league? 

QUESTIONS 

Explain  the  conditions  which  make  it  impossible  for  a  wise 
nation  to  live  by  itself.  Define  treaty;  international  law.  How 
did  international  law  originate?  How  great  is  the  extent  of  a 
state's  authority  over  persons  and  things? 

What  is  the  reason  for  sending  representatives  to  foreign  coun- 
tries? Describe  the  three  classes  of  diplomatic  representatives. 
Name  the  present  American  ambassadors  to  the  leading  countries. 
Do  you  know  the  names  of  any  of  their  representatives  here? 
What  rights  does  a  diplomat  have  when  in  the  country  to  which 
he  is  sent?     Explain  the  duties  of  a  consul.    How  is  he  chosen? 

What  guarantee  is  there  that  treaties  will  be  kept  if  they  are 
made?  Is  there  any  way  short  of  war  that  will  be  available  to 
compel  the  keeping  of  a  treaty? 

When  if  ever  is  war  justifiable?  How  is  it  made  known?  What 
is  its  effect  on  persons  and  things?  What  duties  are  incumbent 
upon  neutral  governments  and  citizens?  Review  the  causes  of  the 
wars  in  which  the  United  States  has  taken  part.  Do  you  consider 
the  attitude  of  our  country  justified  in  each  case?  Exactly  what 
is  meant  by  arbitration?  Give  some  notable  instances  of  its  use. 
Have  the  Hague  Peace  Conferences  been  of  any  real  value  to  the 
world?  Explain  the  influences  that  brought  about  the  proposal  of 
the  League  of  Nations. 

SPECIAL  TOPICS 

The  Requirements  and  Duties  of  an  Ambassador  to  a  Great 
Nation. 

International  Law  in  the  Great  War. 

The  Relations  of  the  United  States  to  the  Great  War. 

The  Story  of  the  Hague  Peace  Conferences. 

Pirates. 

The  Red  Cross  Society. 

The  Peace  Conference  of  1919  and  Its  Accomplishments. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE  UNION  AND  THE  STATES 


Liberty  and  Union,  now  and  forever,  one  and  inseparable. 

—  Webster. 

148.  Relation  of  the  States  to  Each  Other.  —  In  a  federal 
government  like  ours,  some  of  the  most  delicate  questions 
of  policy  and  administration  arise  out  of  the  relations  of  the 
parts  of  the  Union  to  each  other.  It  is  clear  that,  to  escape 
disagreement  as  much  as  possible,  matters  of  this  kind  should 
be  stated  rather  definitely  in  the  national  Constitution.  Only 
by  this  means,  too,  can  such  uniformity  and  fairness  be  se- 
cured as  will  make  the  people  in  all  parts  of  the  country 
feel  that  they  are  treated  alike. 

The  Constitution  tells  us  that  "  full  faith  and  credit  shall 
be  given  in  each  state  to  the  public  acts,  records,  and  judicial 
proceedings  of  every  other  state."  This  means  that  an  act 
legally  done  in  one  state  must  be  respected  as  a  legal  act  by 
the  other  states,  even  though  their  own  laws  might  differ 
on  the  point  in  question.  A  deed  to  property  which  has 
been  recorded  in  a  lawful  manner  in  one  state  must  be  recog- 
nized by  the  courts  of  another  state.  A  corporation  which 
has  received  a  charter  in  any  state  must  be  recognized  by 
other  states  as  having  the  right  to  carry  on  business  as  a 
corporation,  even  if  it  could  not  have  received  a  charter 
anywhere  else. 

Would  it  be  an  advantage  if  corporations  were  chartered  by 
the  federal  government?  Would  it  be  better  if  marriage  and 
divorce  laws  were  uniform  throughout  the  country?  Should  such 
laws  be  easy  or  strict  ? 

233 


234 


The  Union  and  the  States 


A  citizen  of  one  state  is  entitled  to  all  the  "  privileges  and 
immunities  "  of  citizens  of  any  other  state  while  he  may  be 
within  the  borders  of  that  other  state.  A  citizen  of  New 
York  staying  for  a  while  in  Pennsylvania  may  claim  all 
the  privileges  of  a  citizen  of  Pennsylvania,  no  more  and 
no  less.  He  has  no  right  to  violate  a  Pennsylvania  law 
simply  because  an  act  he  may  want  to  perform  would  not 


Boats  on  the  Ohio  River. 
Smoke  regulation  is  still  in  order. 


be  a  crime  in  New  York.  It  is  understood  that  it  is  a  person's 
duty  to  keep  informed  as  to  the  laws  of  the  place  where  he 
is,  and  not  offer  his  ignorance  as  an  excuse  for  a  habit  of  law- 
breaking. 

In  spite  of  the  many  differences  in  detail  between  the  laws 
of  one  state  and  the  laws  of  another,  the  great  mass  of  fun- 
damental principles  and  customs  are  alike  in  all  the  states. 
When  there  is  a  difference,  our  attention  is  particularly  called 
to  it.    We  may  forget  the  ninety  per  cent  of  features  that 


Fugitives  from  Justice  235 

are  common  to  all,  in  looking  at  a  part  of  the  ten  per  cent  in 
which  there  is  a  difference.  Nowhere  is  there  so  much  dif- 
ference that  a  person  moving  from  one  state  to  another 
would  have  any  serious  trouble  in  adjusting  himself  to  his 
new  surroundings,  so  far  as  government  is  concerned. 

There  is  absolute  freedom  of  trade  between  the  states. 
Intrastate  commerce,  that  is,  commerce  entirely  within  a 
state,  may  be  regulated  as  that  state  sees  fit.  But  when 
a  journey  or  an  exchange  of  goods  or  messages  crosses  the 
boundaries  of  a  state,  then  it  becomes  interstate  commerce 
and  is  subject  to  the  control  of  Congress.  No  state  is  al- 
lowed to  tax  goods  brought  from  another,  except  for  the  pur- 
pose of  inspecting  them.  The  need  for  anything  of  this 
kind  is  rare. 

Prove  that  a  very  large  part  of  present-day  industry  is  subject 
to  national  regulation. 

149.  Fugitives  from  Justice.  —  The  laws  of  a  state  are 
not  in  force  beyond  its  own  limits,  but  a  criminal  may  not 
make  use  of  this  fact  to  escape  punishment  by  fleeing  from 
the  state  in  which  the  crime  was  committed.  Suppose,  for 
example,  a  person  who  was  accused  of  murder  in  Cincinnati 
went  to  Chicago  after  the  crime  was  committed.  The  au- 
thorities in  Cincinnati  might  lay  a  statement  of  the  facts 
before  the  governor  of  Ohio.  He  would  then  send  to  the 
governor  of  Illinois  a  "  requisition  "  asking  that  the  accused 
person  should  be  returned  to  Cincinnati,  and  in  ordinary 
cases  the  governor  of  Illinois  would  instruct  the  Chicago 
police  authorities  to  do  this. 

Many  times  an  accused  person,  under  such  circumstances, 
knowing  that-  he  will  have  to  go  back  anyway,  agrees  to  go 
without  making  this  proceeding  necessary,  but  he  can  com- 
pel it  to  be  done  if  he  insists  on  his  constitutional  rights. 

Occasionally  a  governor,  for  what  he  considers  a  good 
reason,  will  refuse  to  honor  a  requisition  made  by  another 
governor.  No  punishment  is  provided  for  such  a  refusal, 
and  in  the  rare  cases  when  this  happens  the  accused  person 


236  The  Union  and  the  States 

is  safe,  at  least  while  that  particular  governor  remains  in 
office  in  the  state  where  he  has  taken  refuge. 

If  a  criminal  escapes  to  a  foreign  country,  the  process  of 
getting  him  back  is  taken  up  by  our  State  Department,  as 
the  individual  states  are  not  allowed  to  deal  directly  with  a 
foreign  country.  With  most  of  the  countries  of  the  world 
we  have  special  "  extradition  "  treaties  covering  cases  of 
this  kind. 

150.  National  Supremacy  and  Obligation.  —  The  Consti- 
tution of  the  United  States  and  all  laws  and  treaties  made 
in  accordance  with  it,  shall  be  "  the  supreme  law  of  the 
land,  and  the  judges  in  every  state  shall  be  bound  thereby." 
So  says  the  Constitution  itself  very  plainly.  If  the  two 
spheres  of  authority  conflict,  the  state  must  give  way,  and 
recognize  the  higher  authority  of  the  nation. 

So  as  to  assure  this  recognition  of  the  national  authority, 
all  public  officers  of  the  states  as  well  as  of  the  nation  must 
take  an  oath  to  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States.  Some  people  assert  that  there  is  a  "  twilight  zone  " 
in  which  it  is  hard  to  distinguish  between  the  authority  of 
the  nation  and  of  the  state.  But  the  ordinary  person  does 
not  need  to  worry  much  about  it.  If  he  does  wrong,  it 
makes  little  difference  whether  he  is  punished  by  the  state 
or  the  national  government.  If  he  does  right,  neither  is 
likely  to  bother  him. 

Perhaps  in  return  for  the  recognition  of  this  supremacy, 
the  national  government  undertakes  certain  obligations 
toward  the  states.  It  must  guarantee  them  a  republican 
form  of  government.  It  is  very  unlikely  that  any  state 
will  ever  try  to  establish  a  monarchy  or  any  other  objec- 
tionable style  of  government ;  but  if  it  should,  the  national 
government  would  be  bound  to  prevent  its  continuance. 
The  Supreme  Court  has  ruled  that  the  responsibility  for 
deciding  when  a  state  has  a  republican  form  of  government 
rests  with  Congress  and  not  with  the  Court. 

Further,  the  United  States  must  protect  every  state  from 


Distribution  of  the  Powers  of  Government    237 

invasion  by  an  enemy,  though  the  state  is  expected  to  take 
its  own  part  also,  if  such  an  unhappy  event  should  occur. 
Finally,  if  a  state  cannot  by  its  own  efforts  maintain  order 
and  put  down  a  riot  or  insurrection  within  its  own  limits,  its 
governor,  or  its  legislature,  if  that  body  is  in  session,  may 
appeal  to  the  federal  authorities  for  help. 

151.  Distribution  of  the  Powers  of  Government.  —  (1) 
Forbidden  powers.  We  must  notice  that  some  powers  are 
forbidden  by  our  national  Constitution  to  both  the  national 
government  and  the  states. 

There  may  be  no  ex  post  facto  laws  —  that  is,  laws  under 
which  a  person  might  be  punished  for  doing  an  act  which 
was  not  contrary  to  law  at  the  time  it  was  done.  Of  course 
a  law  may  be  passed  declaring  an  act  to  be  a  crime  which 
had  not  been  considered  so  before,  but  it  can  apply  only  to 
occasions  after  the  law  was  passed. 

Neither  may  there  be  any  bill  of  attainder.  This  is  the 
name  applied  to  an  act  of  Parliament  or  similar  body  con- 
demning a  man  to  punishment  without  giving  him  a  trial 
in  court,  and  perhaps  depriving  his  family  also  of  some  of 
their  rights  or  privileges. 

No  title  of  nobility  may  be  granted  here,  and  no  public 
officer  may  accept  a  present  or  office  from  a  foreign  govern- 
ment without  the  consent  of  Congress.  A  little  thought 
will  show  why  it  seemed  wholly  dangerous  and  contrary 
to  the  spirit  of  free  government  to  allow  any  of  these  things 
to  be  done. 

Slavery  is  forbidden  within  our  borders.  All  persons  born 
or  naturalized  in  the  United  States  are  citizens  and  entitled 
to  the  equal  protection  of  its  laws.  No  one  may  be  denied  the 
power  of  voting  because  of  "  race,  color,  or  previous  condition 
of  servitude." 

When  we  put  the  first  nine  amendments  to  our  national 
Constitution  alongside  the  Bills  of  Rights  in  the  state  con- 
stitutions we  have  a  rather  formidable  list  of  restrictions  on 
the  powers  of  our  governments  in  relation  to  the  privileges 


238  The  Union  and  the  States 

of  the  people.  As  a  matter  of  wisdom  the  provision  is  also 
added  that  no  tax  should  be  placed  on  goods  exported  from 
any  state.  Some  countries  make  use  of  this  kind  of  tax, 
but  it  was  feared  that  such  a  tax  might  hinder  the  progress 
and  prosperity  of  the  country. 

(2)  Concurrent  powers.  Coming  now  to  the  long  list  of 
possible  powers  that  still  remain,  there  appears  to  be  one  set 
of  powers  which  may  be  employed  by  either  the  federal  or  the 
state  governments.  This  embraces  vital  privileges  such  as 
laying  taxes  and  borrowing  money,  and  others  less  often 
mentioned  but  still  important,  such  as  bankruptcy  laws,  acts 
regulating  weights  and  measures,  the  trial  of  certain  cases  at 
law,  and  the  like. 

(3)  Federal  powers.  Other  powers  are  exercised  by  the 
federal  government  alone.  We  find  here  the  making  of 
treaties  and  alliances,  the  granting  of  letters  of  marque  and 
reprisal,  coining  money,  declaring  war,  or  keeping  an  army 
or  navy  in  time  of  peace.  These  are  very  clearly  acts  which 
if  done  at  all  can  be  safely  permitted  only  to  the  central 
government. 

In  this  section  we  must  put  three  other  powers  which  are 
forbidden  to  the  states  although  not  specially  granted  to 
the  federal  government.  (1)  The  states  may  not  "  emit 
bills  of  credit  "  —  in  other  words,  issue  paper  money.  (2) 
They  may  not  make  anything  but  gold  and  silver  "  a  tender 
in  payment  of  debts."  That  is,  a  state  may  not  force  a 
person  to  accept  paper  money  in  payment  of  an  obligation. 
(3)  The  states  may  not  "  pass  any  law  impairing  the  obliga- 
tion of  contracts,' '  —  that  is,  interfering  with  or  preventing 
the  performance  of  agreements  already  made. 

Whether  it  was  an  oversight  on  the  part  of  the  makers  of 
the  Constitution  that  they  did  not  impose  these  three  re- 
strictions on  Congress  too  will  never  be  known.  As  it  is, 
Congress  has  done  all  three  of  these  things  and  has  been  sus- 
tained by  the  courts  in  the  act. 

(4)  State  powers.    The  powers  that  are  left  are  the  powers 


Admission  of  States  239 

which  the  Tenth  Amendment  declares  to  be  "  reserved  to  the 
states  respectively  or  to  the  people.' '  The  list  of  them  would 
be  almost  endless.  The  care  of  the  public  health,  education, 
regulation  of  local  government,  the  care  of  the  poor,  the 
insane,  and  the  sick,  the  granting  of  the  right  to  vote,  —  these 
are  only  a  few  of  the  many  matters  which  are  controlled  by  the 
states.  The  national  government  investigates  some  of  these 
matters,  as  we  have  already  learned,  and  even,  through  its 
control  of  interstate  commerce,  touches  some  of  them  with 
real  authority.  But  whatever  the  federal  government  does 
with  them  is  incidental  to  the  exercise  of  some  other  power. 
Only  the  states  deal  with  them  directly. 

Yet  one  would  be  mistaken  to  think  that  the  federal 
and  state  governments  never  work  together  or  disregard 
each  other's  existence.  Often  they  cooperate  directly,  as 
in  handling  a  contagious  disease.  Sometimes  the  federal 
government  leaves  to  the  states  the  carrying  out  of  its 
own  laws,  as  when  the  districting  of  states  for  the  election 
of  representatives  in  Congress  is  left  for  the  state  legis- 
latures. That  this  spirit  of  cooperation  and  harmony 
could  be  improved  is  very  true.  But  even  as  it  is,  each 
makes  use  of  the  other's  services.  Neither  can  forget  that 
there  are  states  and  that  there  is  a  federal  constitution 
and  government  binding  them  all  in  one. 

Would  it  be  wiser  to  centralize  more  power  in  the  federal  govern- 
ment ?  Are  there  any  advantages  in  our  present  system  of  distribu- 
tion of  powers? 

152.  Admission  of  States.  — The  admission  of  new  states 
is  in  the  hands  of  Congress.  If  the  new  state  is  to  be  made 
from  land  wholly  or  partly  within  the  limits  of  one  or  more 
of  the  existing  states,  the  legislatures  of  the  states  that 
are  concerned  must  give  their  consent.  Maine  and  West 
Virginia  are  the  only  states  which  have  been  so  formed. 
But  most  of  the  other  states  of  the  present  forty-eight  were 
territories  before  they  were  states,  and  came  into  the  Union 
only  when  Congress  got  ready  to  let  them  come.    There  is 


240  The  Union  and  the  States 

no  law  requiring  any  particular  population  or  area.  When  a 
state  has  once  been  admitted,  it  is  on  full  political  equality 
with  the  others,  and  there  is  no  way  of  getting  it  out. 

One  would  suppose,  therefore,  that  Congress  would  be 
very  careful  about  this  matter.  Sometimes  it  has  been, 
but  sometimes  the  desire  to  get  more  electoral  votes  or 
members  of  the  Senate  for  the  benefit  of  a  political  party 
has  been  the  chief  reason  why  a  state  was  admitted  much 
earlier  than  it  should  have  been.  Nevada,  for  example, 
had  only  20,000  population  when  it  was  admitted,  and  even 
to-day  you  could  put  the  people  of  six  Nevadas  in  the  one 
city  of  Pittsburgh. 

The  process  most  often  followed  in  admitting  a  new  state 
is  the  following.  Congress  passes  an  "  enabling  act  "  which 
authorizes  the  people  of  a  territory  to  choose  delegates  to  a 
convention  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  up  a  state  constitu- 
tion. This  constitution  is  then  submitted  to  the  vote  of  the 
people  of  the  territory.  If  it  is  accepted  by  them  and  is 
satisfactory  to  Congress,  that  body  passes  a  resolution  to 
that  effect.  The  President  then  issues  a  proclamation  an- 
nouncing that  a  new  state  has  come  into  the  Union.  The 
arrangement  of  stars  in  the  flag  is  adjusted  soon  afterward 
to  make  room  for  the  new  one. 

Sometimes  Congress  tries  to  insist  on  certain  provisions 
which  a  state  must  comply  with  in  order  to  be  admitted. 
Oklahoma,  for  example,  for  the  benefit  of  the  Indians,  was 
obliged  to  prohibit  the  liquor  traffic  for  at  least  21  years. 
Utah  was  kept  out  for  many  years  until  the  rulers  of  the 
Mormon  church  were  understood  to  have  given  a  solemn 
pledge  that  the  church  had  ceased  the  practice  of  polygamy. 

When  was  your  state  admitted?  How  did  it  rank  in  population 
then  and  how  does  it  now,  in  comparison  with  the  other  states? 
Compare  it  also  in  area,  total  and  per  capita.    Bound  it. 

What  direct  benefits  does  the  national  government  give  to  the 
businessman?  to  the  farmer?  to  you?  What  does  the  state  gov- 
ernment do  for  each  of  these?    The  local  government? 


Special  Topics  241 


QUESTIONS 

Why  is  it  essential  that  the  relations  of  one  state  to  another 
should  be  rather  definitely  marked  out?  To  what  extent  must  one 
state  recognize  the  acts  of  another?  What  rights  does  the  citizen 
of  one  state  enjoy  when  he  is  in  another  state?  Which  are  more 
numerous  or  evident,  the  likenesses  or  the  differences  between  the 
laws  of  the  states  ? 

Describe  the  process  followed  when  a  person  accused  of  crime 
goes  outside  the  state  where  the  crime  was  committed. 

According  to  the  national  Constitution  as  you  read  it,  to  what 
extent  does  it  demand  recognition  by  the  states?  How  far  does 
your  view  agree  or  disagree  with  the  theory  advocated  by  Calhoun 
in  the  days  before  the  Civil  War?  How  far  does  it  concern  the  na- 
tional government  or  the  other  states  what  form  of  government  any 
state  establishes  ?  How  far  is  the  national  government  responsible 
for  law  and  order  in  a  state  ? 

Make  an  outline  or  a  diagram  that  will  show  the  powers  forbidden 
to  national  and  state  governments  alike,  those  forbidden  to  the 
states  but  exercised  by  the  national  government,  those  not  granted 
to  the  national  government  but  exercised  by  the  states,  and  those 
exercised  by  both  national  and  state  governments.  Define  bill 
of  attainder,  ex  post  facto  law,  bill  of  credit. 

How  many  states  are  there  ?  Are  any  more  in  prospect  ?  What 
are  the  constitutional  requirements  in  regard  to  the  admission  of  a 
new  state?  What  customs  commonly  characterize  the  process? 
Do  you  think  this  matter  has  always  been  wisely  handled  ?  What 
general  considerations  would  you  suggest  that  should  always  be 
observed  in  this  connection? 


SPECIAL  TOPICS 

Extradition  Treaties  with  Foreign  Countries. 
The  Webster-Hayne  Debate. 
The  Story  of  the  American  Flag. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

OUR  STATE  GOVERNMENTS 


The  Constitution  in  all  its  provisions  looks  to  an  indestructible 
Union  composed  of  indestructible  states.  — Chase. 


163.  The  Original  States.  —  We  must  not  forget  that  some 
of  our  states  are  older  than  our  present  federal  government. 
The  thirteen  colonies  which  in  1776  declared  their  inde- 
pendence from  Great  Britain  already  had  well-organized 
governments  of  their  own,  and  Vermont  governed  itself 
independently  of  any  of  them  for  several  years.  Con- 
necticut and  Rhode  Island,  indeed,  used  their  colonial 
charters  for  state  constitutions  for  many  years  after  they 
broke  away  from  Great  Britain. 

Every  colony  had  a  governor.  Every  colony  had  a  legis- 
lature or  assembly,  although  Pennsylvania  and  Georgia 
had  only  one  house  in  it.1  So  in  changing  them- 
selves from  colonies  to  states  they  altered  their  form  of 
government  very  little.  In  several  states  the  change 
amounted  to  little  more,  as  far  as  form  went,  than  electing 
a  governor  instead  of  having  him  appointed  by  the  king  or 
by  a  proprietor. 

154.  State  Constitutions.  —  After  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  was  adopted,  Congress  advised  the  states 
to  draw  up  whatever  plan  of  government  their  special  needs 
might  call  for.  In  the  four  years  from  1776  to  1780  all  of 
them,  beginning  with  New  Hampshire,  and  including  Ver- 

1  Vermont  had  only  one  house  in  its  state  legislature  until  1836. 
242 


State  Constitutions  243 

mont,  made  state  constitutions,  except  Connecticut  and 
Rhode  Island.  Most  of  these  states  have  changed  their 
constitutions  since  then,  several  of  them  having  had  as 
many  as  four  different  ones.  Massachusetts  alone  has  never 
adopted  an  entirely  new  one,  but  in  1917  it  elected  a  con- 
vention to  revise  its  constitution  of  1780. 

In  comparing  the  early  state  constitutions  with  those  made 
in  late  years  we  notice  a  number  of  differences.  The  new 
ones  are  much  longer.  New  Hampshire's  constitution  of 
1776  had  about  600  words ;  Oklahoma's  of  1907  had  50,000. 
The  early  constitutions  were  often  made  by  the  state  legis- 
lature ;  now  a  special  convention  usually  is  called  to  do  that 
work  and  nothing  eke.  The  later  constitutions  are  much 
easier  to  amend,  and  deal  with  a  much  wider  range  of  sub- 
jects. States  do  not  seem  to  feel  as  much  reverence  for  their 
own  constitutions  as  they  do  for  the  national  Constitution, 
and  are  much  more  ready  to  change  them. 

State  constitutions  generally  contain  at  least  the  following 
general  divisions : 

(1)  A  Bill  of  Rights.  We  must  remember  that  the  first 
ten  amendments  to  the  national  constitution  apply  to  the 
federal  government  only.  If  the  people  of  a  state  are 
afraid  that  their  state  government  will  disregard  their  rights, 
they  must  protect  themselves  in  their  own  constitution.  It 
is  unlikely  that  either  the  federal  government  or  any  state 
government  would  wilfully  disregard  the  fundamental  lib- 
erties of  the  people,  but  most  of  the  states  seem  to  think  that 
"  safety  first  "  is  a  good  motto  to  follow  in  this  matter. 

(2)  An  explanation  of  the  frame  of  government  of  the 
state  —  its  officers,  the  method  of  choosing  them,  and  their 
duties. 

(3)  Various  provisions  relating  to  the  administration  of 
the  state  government  and  the  powers  it  may  exercise.  The 
tendency  is  very  noticeable  in  the  recent  constitutions  to 
include  a  great  many  matters  which  very  probably  ought 
to  be  dealt  with  by  laws.    Constitutions  do  not  limit  their 


244 


Our  State  Governments 


provisions  to  the  fundamental  things  as  was  formerly  the 
custom. 

(4)  A  "  schedule,"  or  statement  of  the  conditions  under 
which  the  constitution  will  go  into  effect. 

Outline  the  constitution  of  your  own  state,  observing  how  much 
space  is  given  to  each  of  these  parts. 

155.  The  Form  of  State  Governments.  —  It  is  best  to 
get  a  few  facts  about  our  own  state  thoroughly  established. 
In  doing  that  we  shall  get  a  general  understanding  of  the 


Minnesota  State  Capitol,  St.  Paul,  Minnesota. 

main  features  of  state  government,  for  the  great  majority  do 
not  differ  much  in  general  principle.     We  shall  at  this  point 
mention  only  a  few  common  facts,  showing  some  of  the 
notable  likenesses  and  differences. 
Name  the  capital  of  each  state. 

Every  state  has  a  legislature  of  two  houses.  In  many 
states  the  official  title  of  the  lawmaking  body  is  the  General 
Assembly.  Massachusetts  and  New  Hampshire  call  it  the 
General  Court.  The  upper  house  is  called  the  Senate  and  is 
much  the  smaller  of  the  two.  The  lower  house  is  called  most 
often  the  House  of  Representatives,  but  some  states  use  the 


The  Form  of  State  Governments         245 


File  Fullo-1189 


LEGISLATURE  OF  PENNSYLVANIA. 


FILE  OF  THE  HOUSE  OF  REPRESENTATIVES. 

No.    240 


of 

1913. 


INTRODUCED  BY  MR  STEIN,  JANUARY  29,  1913. 
REFERRED  TO  COMMITTEE  ON  EDUCATION,  JANUARY  29,  1913. 

AN  ACT 


rtlon      two        ttiooaana      tight 
article      twenty-eight      of     «u 


•ad     twaatr-fonr      (2824) 


term  Assembly  for  this  body.  The  officers  of  the  two  houses 
and  the  process  of  lawmaking  are  so  nearly  like  those  of 
Congress  that  it  will  hardly  pay  us  to  study  the  differences 
except  as  we  find  them 
in  our  own  state. 

If  possible,  make  a  map 
of  your  state  showing  its 
division  into  legislative 
districts.  At  least  be 
able  to  describe  those  in 
which  you  live. 

There  has  been  much 
criticism  of  the  quality 
of  the  members  of  the 
average  legislature. 
Much  of  this  criticism, 
unfortunately,  appears 
to  be  well  founded.  But 
who  is  to  blame  ?  The 
legislators  are  chosen 
by  the  people,  and  come 
from  the  people  them- 
selves. Generally  the 
legislature  will  be  just 
what  the  voters  who 
take  part  in  the  elec- 
tions wish  them  to  be. 
Fault-finding  is  no 
remedy  at  all. 


Pennajlrania      together      with      the      prorielona 
id      preacribing      penalties 


and      the     method     of     collecting 
laws      general        special     or      local 


17      of      Hay      one      thoaaand      nine      hundred      and 
flares     07     ftxlng     and     reducing     the     millage     therein     provided     for 


aenming      any       hooded       lndebtedneea      of      any      former 
A     sob-school     diatrlct     or     ward     achool     district     within 


1    1     Dt    I     ant-tnt     If     lit 

0/     ts,     CoaaomtU     «/     /-« 
11     it     kerrbf     ntteUd     ay     lA 


Bom*     of     AVpra- 


easAorisjr     of     (A*     mm* 
and      twenty-four      (2824) 


First  Printed  Copy  of  a  Bill. 

This  has  been  introduced  and  referred  to 
a  committee  and  is  printed  for  the  use  of 
members  and  for  public  distribution.  Notice 
the  formal  title  and  '■'  enacting  clause." 


Find  out  what  is  meant  by  lobbying  and  log-rolling.  A  few 
states  require  that  lobbyists  must  register  with  some  legislative 
official.  Do  you  approve  the  plan?  Draw  up  a  bill  for  introduc- 
tion in  your  legislature.  Hold  a  mock  session  for  the  discussion 
of  the  bills  which  the  class  presents. 

In  every  state  the  chief  executive  officer  is  the  governor. 
His  term  is  either  one,  two,  or  four  years.    In  most  of  the 


246  Our  State  Governments 

states  he  has  the  veto  power  and  other  powers  like  those  of 
the  president  in  the  national  government.  He  appoints 
very  many  executive  officers,  with  the  approval  of  the  state 
senate.  Three  fourths  of  the  states  have  a  lieutenant-gov- 
ernor to  succeed  to  the  office  of  governor  in  case  a  vacancy 
occurs.     He  generally  presides  over  the  state  senate. 

There  are  many  other  executive  officials  or  commissions  to 
deal  with  particular  branches  of  the  state's  administrative 
work.  They  do  not,  however,  form  a  cabinet  as  in  the 
federal  government,  and  the  authority  of  the  governor  over 
them  is  usually  very  much  less  than  that  of  the  president 
over  the  national  executive  departments. 

Do  you  believe  in  having  a  strong  governor  or  one  with  little 
power? 

Among  these  administrative  officials  appear  the  following : 

The  Secretary  of  State  has  charge  of  the  official  records  and 
papers  of  the  governor  and  legislature,  and  has  numerous 
other  duties  which .  vary  considerably  from  one  state  to 
another.  In  Massachusetts  and  Pennsylvania  this  officer 
is  known  as  the  Secretary  of  the  Commonwealth. 

The  Auditor,  Auditor-General,  or  Comptroller,  must  see 
that  no  money  is  spent  from  the  state  treasury  unless  it  has 
been  authorized  by  law,  and  sometimes  has  other  duties 
connected  with  the  state's  finances. 

Every  state  has  a  Treasurer,  who  is  responsible  for  the 
actual  care  and  expenditure  of  the  money  paid  into  the 
state  treasury. 

Almost  all  the  states  have  an  Attorney-General,  who  is 
the  legal  adviser  of  the  state  officials.  He  and  his  assistants 
also  represent  the  state  in  legal  cases  in  which  the  state  is 
directly  concerned. 

Most  of  the  states  have  also  an  Adjutant-General,  with 
important  duties  in  the  state's  National  Guard ;  a  Superin- 
tendent of  Education,  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  or 
Commissioner  of  Education;   and  a  Commissioner  of  Insur- 


Preliminary  Proceedings  in  a  Criminal  Case    247 

ance.  Many  of  them  have  a  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  and 
a  number  of  other  officers  whose  names  suggest  their  duties. 

In  some  states  these  officials  are  appointed  by  the  governor 
and  in  others  they  are  elected  by  popular  vote. 

Every  state  has  a  supreme  court,  though  not  always  known 
by  that  name.  Every  state  has  also  a  system  of  lower  courts. 
Perhaps  there  is  more  difference  in  the  organization  of  the 
judicial  departments  than  in  either  of  the  others.  The 
terms  of  the  judges  run  from  two  years  in  Vermont  to 
twenty-one  years  for  supreme  justice  in  Pennsylvania.  The 
general  powers  of  the  courts  are  about  the  same  in  all  the 
states. 

156.  Preliminary  Proceedings  in  a  Criminal  Case.  —  It 
will  be  worth  while  to  follow  from  beginning  to  end  the 
steps  connected  with  the  trial  of  a  case  as  it  would  usually 
be  conducted  in  the  lowest  organized  court  in  a  state's 
judicial  system.  We  will  take  as  an  example  a  case  of 
burglary.  As  this  is  an  outright  violation  of  the  laws  of 
the  state  it  is  of  course  a  crime. 

Naturally  the  first  step  is  to  get  the  suspected  person. 
The  arrest  may  be  made  by  an  officer  who  sees  a  person  com- 
mitting a  crime  or  finds  him  under  suspicious  circumstances ; 
or  it  may  be  made  after  a  warrant  has  been  issued  authorizing 
it.  In  the  latter  case  a  detective  or  some  other  person  must 
have  made  a  complaint  telling  why  a  person  should  be  ar- 
rested. 

Next  the  supposed  burglar  is  taken  before  a  police  magis- 
trate or  alderman,  if  we  are  in  a  city,  or  before  a  justice  of 
the  peace,  if  we  are  in  a  smaller  community.  The  justice 
conducts  a  hearing,  to  find  what  the  charge  is  and  why 
the  arrest  has  been  made.  If  he  thinks  the  man  may  be 
guilty,  he  will  hold  him  for  trial  in  the  proper  court.  If 
the  man  has  friends  who  will  go  on  his  bail,  he  may  go  free 
till  time  for  the  trial.  His  friends  agree  to  pay  a  certain 
sum  of  money  in  case  he  does  not  appear  when  the  trial  is 
called. 


248 


Our  State  Governments 


The  district  attorney  presents  to  the  grand  jury  the  main 
features  of  the  evidence  against  the  accused  person.  This 
body  is  composed  of  voters  of  the  county.  Twenty-four  of 
them  are  summoned  by  the  jury  commissioners  and  the 
sheriff.  If  all  can  attend,  one  is  excused,  so  that  there  may 
be  an  uneven  number.  Twelve  must  agree  on  an  indictment, 
even  though  as  small  a  number  as  sixteen  are  qualified  to 
act.1  If  the  grand  jury  thinks  that  there  is  a  chance  of  con- 
victing the  accused,  they  will  "  find  a  true  bill,"  and  draw 


WfiF 

~HwS 

it:    H 

-J 

1 

(III 

m..jM '  m  .3 

m—mm-        * 

"■;f 

»df  .  ir*t  _ 

<pq»~' 

Sonoma  County  Court  House,  Santa  Rosa,  California. 


up  an  indictment,  or  formal  charge,  against  him.  If  they 
believe  there  is  ho  possibility  of  conviction,  they  will  "  ig- 
nore the  bill,"  and  the  accused  man  will  be  released. 

157.  The  Trial.  —  If  the  man  is  indicted,  his  case  is  set 
for  trial  before  the  court.  When  its  turn  arrives,  a  petit 
jury  of  twelve  men  is  drawn  from  the  whole  number  who 
have  been  summoned  for  jury  service  at  the  session  of  court 
then  being  held.  The  district  attorney  or  his  assistant  acts 
as  the  lawyer  for  the  "  Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts  " 
(for  example)  and  brings  witnesses  to  show  that  the  defend- 
ant is  guilty.    The  accused  man's  lawyer  does  the  same 

1  In  some  states  the  grand  jury  does  not  have  twenty-three  members. 


The  Trial 


249 


in  his  behalf.    Each  has  the  right  to  cross-examine  the 
witnesses  for  the  other  side. 

Each  attorney  sums  up  his  case  and  tries  to  win  the 
jury's  favor  in  a  closing  speech.  The  judge  then  "  charges  " 
the  jury,  telling  them  the  laws  that  apply  to  the  case  and 
mentioning  the  points  of 
fact  which  they  ought 
not  to  overlook  in  reach- 
ing their  conclusions. 

The  jury  then  retire 
from  the  courtroom  for 
deliberation.  They  must 
be  all  agreed  if  a  verdict 
of  "guilty"  or  "  not 
guilty  "  is  found.  When 
an  agreement  is  reached 
or  it  appears  that  no 
agreement  can  be 
reached,  the  jury  will 
announce  the  fact  to  the  court,  and  will  then  be  discharged 
from  consideration  of  that  case. 

If  the  verdict  is  "  guilty  "  the  judge  will  impose  sentence. 
This  varies,  according  to  the  offense,  from  a  few  days'  im- 
prisonment or  a  few  dollars'  fine  to  a  heavy  fine  or  a  long 
term  in  the  penitentiary,  or  both  fine  and  imprisonment. 
In  the  case  of  willful,  murder  the  penalty  is  death  or  life  im- 
prisonment, depending  on  the  law  of  the  state  where  the 
crime  is  committed.  In  other  crimes  the  judge  is  generally 
allowed  some  discretion  concerning  the  amount  of  a  fine  or 
the  length  of  a  term  of  imprisonment. 

If  the  jury  says  "  not  guilty,"  the  accused  is  discharged 
and  cannot  be  tried  again  for  the  same  offense.  If  the 
jury  disagrees,  the  case  may  be  tried  over  again  in  the  same 
court.  If  a  convicted  man's  lawyer  thinks  he  can  convince 
the  higher  court  that  something  was  done  improperly  in  the 
course  of  the  trial,  that  the  judge  was  mistaken  in  some 


Plan  of  a  Court  Room. 

W  is  the  witness's  chair.    S  is  a  table  for 
the  court  stenographer  and  clerk. 


250  Our  State  Governments 

ruling,  or  that  the  law  was  incorrectly  applied  in  some  way, 
he  may  appeal,  in  the  hope  that  the  higher  court  may  order 
a  new  trial.  But  if  the  higher  court  decides  against  him, 
the  man   must   serve   his   sentence. 

What  kind  of  people  are  most  suitable  for  jurors?  Is  that  the 
kind  that  are  commonly  obtained  in  your  neighborhood  ?  How  are 
they  secured?  Some  details  of  the  processes  described  in  Sections 
156  to  158  may  be  slightly  different  in  your  state.  Note  such  dif- 
ferences, if  they  exist. 

158.  Proceedings  in  a  Civil  Suit.  —  The  parties  in  a  civil 
suit  are  the  plaintiff,  who  brings  the  charges,  and  the  de- 
fendant, who  is  sued.  The  plaintiff's  lawyer  files  a  com- 
plaint with  the  proper  officer  of  the  county  court,  giving  the 
reason  why  he  thinks  the  defendant  has  wronged  him  and 
ought  to  pay  money  "damages"  because  of  this  wrong. 
This  official  notifies  the  defendant.  If  he  admits  the  truth 
of  the  charges,  judgment  will  be  entered  against  him  at  once. 
If  he  denies  any  obligation  such  as  the  plaintiff  claims,  his 
attorney  will  file  an  answer.  The  case  will  then  be  placed 
on  the  "  docket "  of  the  Court. 

From  this  point  on,  the  process  of  trial  is  very  much  like 
that  of  a  criminal  case.  The  plaintiff's  attorney  takes  the 
place  of  the  district  attorney,  and  the  jury  is  often  called  a 
"traverse  jury."  If  the  jury  finds  in  favor  of  the  plaintiff, 
the  defendant  will  be  compelled  to  make  a  money  payment. 

159.  Measures  to  Prevent  Wrong.  —  It  is  more  desirable 
that  wrong  should  be  prevented  than  that  it  should  be  pun- 
ished when  committed.  Courts  not  lower  than  the  county 
courts  have  the  right,  with  that  thought  in  view,  to  issue 
orders  which  are  intended  to  prevent  the  commission  of  a 
crime  or  act  of  disorder.  The  writ  of  mandamus  is  an  order 
to  a  public  officer,  a  person,  or  a  corporation  to  attend  to 
some  duty  which  ought  to  be  done  but  has  been  neglected. 

Courts  may  also  issue  injunctions.  An  injunction  orders 
a  person  or  body  of  persons  not  to  perform  some  act  which 
appears  to  be  dangerous  or  improper,  or  which  may  deprive 


Questions  251 

some  one  else  of  his  rights.  If  it  appears  after  a  time  that 
the  proposed  act  will  not  do  any  harm,  the  injunction  will 
be  set  aside,  but  while  it  is  in  force  any  disregard  of  it  may 
be  punished. 

Each  state  has  a  statute  of  limitations  which  requires 
that,  except  in  very  serious  matters,  prosecutions  must  be 
brought  within  a  certain  time  after  an  act  has  been  com- 
mitted. Sometimes  this  works  so  as  to  enable  bad  men  to 
escape  deserved  punishment ;  but  the  idea  underlying  it  is 
to  relieve  a  man  from  endless  worry  of  prosecution  for  an 
act  which  did  not  seem  serious  enough  to  demand  attention 
at  the  time  it  was  committed,  or  which  occurred  so  long  ago 
that  to  bring  it  up  after  years  had  passed  would  serve  no 
other  purpose  than  spite  or  revenge. 

Does  the  amount  of  money  a  man  has  make  any  difference  in 
his  treatment  by  the  courts?  If  you  were  being  tried,  would  you 
rather  have  a  judge  or  a  jury  decide  whether  you  were  guilty? 

Study  thoroughly  the  form  of  government  of  your  own  state. 
Learn  the  names  and  duties  of  its  principal  officers.  Observe  care- 
fully the  points  of  likeness  and  difference  between  your  state  and 
the  national  government,  and  between  your  state  and  the  general 
statements  we  have  made.  Always  try  to  keep  up  to  date  with  any 
changes  in  officials  or  form  of  government. 


QUESTIONS 

Is  the  nation  older  than  the  states?  How  much  change  in  the 
form  of  state  governments  was  caused  by  the  American  Revolution  ? 
Compare  the  state  constitutions  made  in  Revolutionary  times  with 
those  of  later  years. 

What  features  appear  in  practically  all  state  constitutions? 
Take  the  constitution  of  your  own  state  and  see  how  much  space 
is  taken  up  by  each  of  these  features. 

Mention  the  respects  in  which  the  form  of  all  state  governments 
is  alike.  Give  the  main  general  facts  about  the  legislative,  the 
executive,  and  the  judicial  branches  of  the  state  government. 
From  anything  that  you  have  read  or  have  learned  from  other 
sources,  do  you  think  that  the  quality  of  men  who  conduct  state 
governments  is  higher  or  lower  than  of  those  in  the  national  govern- 


252  Our  State  Governments 

ment?  Who  is  to  blame  if  either  is  below  par?  Should  there  be 
any  difference? 

Outline  the  steps  that  are  taken  in  the  process  of  bringing  to 
trial  a  person  accused  of  committing  a  crime.  Make  clear  the 
difference  between  the  grand  jury  and  the  petit  jury.  Describe 
the  chief  features  in  the  conduct  of  the  trial  itself.  What  follows 
or  may  follow  the  announcement  of  the  verdict  ? 

Outline  the  preliminary  proceedings  in  a  civil  suit.  Wherein 
does  the  course  of  events  differ  from  the  trial  of  a  criminal  case? 

Define  mandamus;  injunction;  statute  of  limitations. 

SPECIAL  TOPICS 

Constitution  Making  in  Our  State. 

A  Visit  to  a  Trial  in  Court.  (Let  the  whole  class  attend  if  possible. 
If  not,  try  to  have  a  few  attend  and  then  plan  out  a  mock  trial  for  the 
whole  class.  If  you  do  this,  be  careful  about  the  form  of  oath  you 
administer  to  the  witnesses.  No  one  should  ever,  even  in  fun,  agree 
to  tell  "the  whole  truth,"  etc.,  unless  he  does  tell  it.) 

Most  of  the  special  work  done  in  connection  with  this  chapter  had 
better  concern  itself  directly  with  the  government  of  the  pupils' 
own  state.  An  outline  following  the  lines  of  our  study  of  Congress 
can  be  worked  out  by  the  teacher  and  the  class  and  the  necessary 
facts  obtained  from  the  state  constitution,  legislative  directories, 
handbook's,  and  the  like,  which  practically  all  state  governments 
issue.  Try  always  to  keep  up  to  date  with  the  names  of  important 
public  officials,  changes  in  important  laws,  etc.,  and  be  sure  the  pupils 
understand  that  state  laws,  customs,  and  officials  are  not  as  change- 
less as  the  "laws  of  the  Medes  and  Persians." 

Resolved,  that  the  system  of  trial  by  jury  should  be  replaced  by 
trial  by  a  permanent  board  of  judges. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

LOCAL  GOVEKNMENTS 


It  is  one  signal  merit  of  the  peaceful  and  untrammeled  way  in 
which  American  institutions  have  grown  up,  the  widest  possible 
scope  being  allowed  to  individual  and  local  preferences,  that  differ- 
ent states  adopt  different  methods  of  attaining  the  great  end  at 
which  all  are  aiming  in  common— good  government.— Fislce. 


160.  Subdivisions  of  the  State.  —  Every  state  is  divided 
into  regions  known  as  counties.1  These  are  often  irregular 
in  shape  and  they  may  differ  considerably  in  area  and 
population. 

The  reasons  for  creating  counties  are  to  make  it  easier 
to  manage  the  business  of  the  state,  to  hold  courts  and 
punish  lawbreakers,  and  to  give  better  attention  to  the  local 
needs  of  the  people.  The  legislature  usually  has  power  to 
make  new  counties,  but  some  constitutions  require  a  county 
to  be  of  a  certain  size  and  to  contain  a  certain  number  of 
people.  Sometimes  a  popular  vote  is  taken  in  a  county 
where  a  division  of  it  into  two  counties  has  been  proposed, 
and  the  division  is  not  made  unless  a  majority  of  the  voters 
favor  it. 

The  same  reasons  which  lead  to  the  formation  of  counties 
also  cause  many  states  to  subdivide  the  counties  into  towns 
or  townships.  When  a  community  becomes  more  thickly 
settled,  it  may  be  given  a  more  thoroughly  organized  govern- 
ment and  called  a  borough  or  a  city.    In  most  states  a  city 

1  In  Louisiana  the  divisions  are  called  parishes. 
253 


254  Local  Governments 

continues  to  be  a  part  of  the  county  to  which  it  previously 
belonged,  although  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  Baltimore,  Maryland, 
and  several  cities  in  Virginia  have  no  connection  with  any 
county  government. 

Part  of  the  states  give  very  little  importance  to  any  smaller 
divisions  than  the  county ;  in  some  of  the  states  such  divisions 
are  called  precincts  or  hundreds. 

161.  Systems  of  Local  Government.  —  You  have  probably 
learned  that  when  the  early  colonists  came  to  New  England 
there  were  many  reasons  why  they  kept  rather  close  together 
in  towns  or  villages.  In  the  southern  colonies  the  kind  of 
farming  carried  on  was  such  as  to  cause  the  people  to  spread 
widely  over  large  areas,  so  that  it  was  impossible  for  them  to 
keep  together  in  towns. 

New  England,  therefore,  produced  a  kind  of  local  govern- 
ment where  the  town  was  the  center  of  every  interest,  and 
when  the  New  England  states'  organized  counties  it  was  done 
as  a  mere  matter  of  convenience  for  holding  courts  or  some 
such  purpose.  In  the  South,  on  the  contrary,  the  county 
government  attended  to  every  want  of  local  communities,  and 
town  government  of  the  New  England  type  was  unknown. 

As  we  might  expect,  the  middle  Atlantic  colonies  found 
their  needs  to  be  partly  like  and  partly  unlike  both  New 
England  and  the  South.  They  naturally  produced  a  mixed 
system  which  had  a  place  for  both  the  township  and  the 
county.  New  York,  being  nearer  to  New  England,  made  the 
town  more  important  than  did  Pennsylvania. 

These  three  systems,  the  town  system,  the  county  system, 
and  the  mixed  or  county-township  system,  are  all  in  use 
to-day.  When  the  New  England  people  went  west  they 
took  their  ideas  of  government  along  with  them ;  and  so  wt 
find  in  states  like  Michigan  or  Wisconsin  a  form  of  local 
government  with  many  features  patterned  on  New  England 
or  New  York.  Pennsylvania's  county-township  system  has 
been  used  as  a  pattern  by  such  states  west  of  her  as  Ohio, 
Indiana,  and  Kansas. 


County  Officers  255 

The  pioneers  who  crossed  the  Alleghenies  from  Virginia 
and  the  Carolinas  were  used  to  the  county  system,  and 
established  it  in  the  regions  which  they  settled.  The  states 
which  use  the  county  system  have  smaller  counties  and 
more  of  them.  Sometimes  a  state  like  IU'uois,  which  was 
settled  by  people  from  both  the  northern  and  southern 
Atlantic  states,  has  allowed  a  county  to  choose  for  itself 
whether  or  not  it  would  be  subdivided  into  townships. 

162.  County  Administration.  —  In  a  large  majority  of 
the  states  the  county  is  the  most  important  subdivision  of 
the  state.  Almost  everywhere  the  administration  of  justice 
is  based  largely  on  the  county.  There  is  a  courthouse  in 
each  county,  which  serves  as  a  place  to  hold  courts  and  to 
furnish  headquarters  for  the  county  officers,  and  almost 
every  county  has  a  jail  in  which  to  keep  criminals.  Counties 
have  the  right  to  acquire  property  for  these  purposes  and 
to  put  up  such  buildings  as  may  seem  desirable. 

As  the  county  courthouse  is  the  "  seat  of  justice  "  for 
the  county,  the  place  where  it  is  located  has  come  to  be  called 
the  county  seat.  Usually  a  central  location  in  the  county  is 
chosen  for  the  courthouse.  On  that  account  we  sometimes 
find  to-day  that  the  county  seat  is  no  longer  the  most  im- 
portant place  in  the  county,  because  railroads  or  other 
industrial  changes  have  given  greater  prominence  to  some 
less  central  place. 

163.  County  Officers.  —  Just  as  in  the  organization  of 
state  governments,  we  shall  find  numerous  differences  in  the 
officers  of  counties,  if  we  pass  from  one  state  to  another. 
In  many  states  the  most  important  county  officials  are 
called  county  commissioners.  They  have  general  oversight 
of  the  county  business,  fix  the  rate  for  the  county  tax,  and 
in  many  cases  are  responsible  for  keeping  up  the  highways. 
In  New  York,  Michigan,  and  some  other  states,  a  board  of 
supervisors  composed  of  one  member  from  each  township  in 
the  county  performs  these  duties.  The  sheriff  is  to  keep 
order  in  the   county.     The  treasurer  handles  the  county 


256 


Local  Governments 


money.    The  auditors  inspect  the  accounts  of  other  county 
officers. 

One  or  more  officers  keep  the  records  of  court  proceedings. 
Another  officer  or  two  record  the  deeds,  wills,  or  other 
legal  papers  ths+-  concern  the  ownership  of  property.  The 
district  attorney,  or  state's  attorney,  prosecutes  persons 
accused  of  crime.     Most  counties  have  a  superintendent  of 


Orange  County  Courthouse. 
Santa  Ana,  California. 


schools,  and  in  many  states  there  are  directors  of  the  poor 
in  each  county. 

We  shall  leave  any  detailed  account  of  the  duties  of  these 
and  other  county  officers  for  you  to  learn  as  you  study  your 
own  state. 

164.  The  Town  or  Township.  —  The  oldest  and  simplest 
of  all  forms  of  local  government  is  the  town  or  township. 
Here  it  is  that  government  comes  most  closely  in  contact 


The  Town  or  Township 


257 


with  the  people  and  here  they  can  most  directly  have  a  part 
in  it.  Matters  most  vitally  affecting  their  lives,  such  as  the 
support  of  schools,  the  maintaining  of  roads,  the  collecting 
of  taxes,  and  other  affairs  in  which  each  particular  locality 
has  its  own  peculiar  interest,  are  dealt  with  in  large  measure 
by  the  township  government. 
We  remember,  of  course,  that  in  speaking  in  this  way  we 


/K  31 

vViT 

1               1 

*■  »s  i  in'     s 

"  ^£Bmt--V!'   I 

v,4r^H!^l                  maSt    "    ntm  mil  "¥"'         ^ 

J  j  mil    *&M 

Old  Town  Hall  and  Church,  Rockingham,  Vermont. 

Regular  services  are  no  longer  held  here,  but  an  annual  "  pilgrimage"  is 
arranged  every  summer. 


refer  to  those  states  which  have  the  town  or  county-township 
system  of  local  government.  It  is  hard  to  state  in  general 
terms  just  how  much  of  public  business  is  handled  by  the 
township,  or  what  is  the  relation  of  the  township  to  the 
county. 

Where  the  New  England  idea  prevails,  the  county  has 
little  direct  authority  over  the  town,  but  in  other  states  the 
township  is  thought  of  as  simply  a  convenient  division  of 


258  Local  Governments 

the  county.  In  some  states  the  legislature  alone  can  form 
new  townships.  In  others  this  is  done  through  the  county 
courts  or  other  county  officers. 

When  the  public  lands  were  surveyed  in  what  are  now  our 
middle  western  or  far  western  states,  they  were  divided, 
in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  Congress,  into  "  townships  " 
six  miles  square,  each  containing  36  "  sections."  This  was 
first  done  as  a  matter  of  convenience  in  mapping  and  selling 
or  giving  away  the  public  land,  but  it  proved  to  offer  equal 
convenience  in  managing  schools,  roads,  and  the  like,  after 
people  began  to  settle. 

As  a  result,  complete  local  governments  were  formed  on 
the  basis  of  the  so-called  Congressional  township.  The 
equal  size  and  regular  shape  of  such  townships  are  in  marked 
contrast  with  the  angles  and  inequalities  that  you  see  when 
you  look  at  a  town  map  of  a  New  England  state. 

165.  The  New  England  Town.  —  The  word  "  town  "  in 
New  England  refers  to  a  political  organization  rather  than 
a  group  of  people.  It  means  somewhat  the  same  as  "  town- 
ship "  in  other  states.  A  New  England  "  town  "  may  con- 
tain three  or  four  villages  within  its  limits. 

The  great  distinguishing  feature  of  the  New  England 
system  of  government  is  the  town  meeting.  This  is  regularly 
held  in  the  spring,  though  special  meetings  may  be  held  at 
other  times.  All  the  voters  have  the  right  to  attend  the 
town  meeting,  elect  town  officers,  and  take  part  in  discussions 
of  town  affairs.  The  town  meetings  act  on  almost  every 
conceivable  thing,  from  fixing  the  tax  rate  or  putting  up  a  new 
school  building  to  selling  a  worn-out  road  scraper  or  appro- 
priating money  for  band  concerts. 

Nothing  exactly  like  this  exists  in  any  other  part  of  the 
world,  and  no  better  training  in  democracy  was  ever  afforded 
anywhere.  Large  communities  cannot  easily  permit  this 
freedom,  but  its  simplicity  and  relative  inexpensiveness  make 
the  people  hesitate  about  giving  it  up.  Brookline,  a  suburb 
of  Boston,  one  of  the  richest  communities  in  the  world  in 


The  New  England  Town  259 

proportion  to  population,   has  30,000  population,  but  is 
still  a  "  town." 

Town  officers  are  very  numerous,  but  are  never  paid  high 
salaries.  The  most  important  are  the  selectmen.  There  are 
usually  three  of  them.  During  the  interval  between  town 
meetings  they  represent  the  town  and  act  in  its  name  when- 
ever it  may  be  necessary.     The  assessors  or  listers  put  a 


Interior,  Old  Town  Hall  and  Church,  Rockingham,  Vermont. 

Observe  the  old-fashioned  high  pulpit.    The  date  indicates  when  repairs 

were  made. 


valuation  on  all  the  taxable  property  in  the  town.  The 
constables  are  the  police  officers.  The  justices  of  the  peace 
perform  various  legal  ceremonies  and  hold  court  in  small 
cases.  The  auditors,  road  commissioners,  school  directors , 
and  all  the  rest,  down  to  the  fence  viewers  and  pound  keepers, 
have  duties  of  greater  or  less  importance. 

Short  terms  for  officers  prevail  throughout  New  England, 
and  one  year  is  the  extent  of  term  for  which  most  of  the 
officials  are  elected.    Where  there  are  three  of  a  kind,  such 


260  Local  Governments 

as  selectmen,  listers,  or  school  directors,  one  may  be  chosen 
each  year  for  a  three-year  term. 

166.  The  Township  in  Other  States.  —  The  New  York 
township  has  a  supervisor  whose  duties  are  similar  to  those 
of  the  New  England  selectmen.  Pennsylvania  has  super- 
visors whose  chief  interest  is  the  care  of  the  roads.  Almost 
everywhere  we  find  a  treasurer,  an  assessor,  auditors,  jus- 
tices of  the  peace,  constables,  overseers  of  the  poor,  a  col- 
lector of  taxes,  and  school  directors. 

The  fundamental  difference  from  the  New  England 
system  is  the  absence  of  the  town  meeting.  The  voters  of  a 
township  elect  its  officers  but  have  no  direct  part  in  the 
conduct  of  township  business.  In  this  system  of  government 
no  particular  attempt  is  made  to  distinguish  between  legis- 
lative and  executive  powers.  Several  of  the  township  officers 
may  be  called  on  to  exercise  both.  A  longer  term  than  in 
New  England  for  township  officers  is  the  rule  in  states 
which  have  the  mixed  system. 

What  form  of  town  or  township  government  do  you  like  best? 
Do  you  think  the  New  England  system,  would  work  well  in  other 
states  ? 

167.  Boroughs  and  Incorporated  Villages.  —  It  often 
happens  that  within  a  township  a  community  of  some  size 
will  grow  up.  The  people  of  this  community  may  want 
better  schools,  paved  streets,  improved  street  lighting,  or 
fire  protection,  which  would  be  expensive  if  extended  through- 
out the  township.  At  the  same  time  they  may  not  have 
enough  people  to  form  a  city  government  or  care  to  assume 
the  expense  that  often  goes  with  it. 

Some  of  the  states  have  made  special  provision  for  this 
class  of  communities  by  organizing  boroughs  or  incorpor- 
ated villages.  The  method  of  formation  varies  with 
each  state,  but  the  approval  of  the  majority  of  voters  or 
property-owners  is  commonly  required.  In  Pennsylvania 
and  Minnesota  a  borough  becomes  wholly  independent  of 
the  township  of  which  it  may  have  formed  a  part. 


Formation  of  Cities 


261 


In  some  of  the  other  states  the  borough  or  village  may  be 
organized  to  meet  only  certain  special  needs,  such  as  street 
lighting,  or  fire  protection,  and  for  other  purposes  may 
continue  as  before  to  be  simply  a  part  of  the  township.  This 
is  the  plan  in  such  states  as  Connecticut  and  Vermont. 

The  borough  or  village  elects  a  small  body  known  as  the 
council  or  board  of  trustees,  who  become  the  lawmakers  for 
their  government.     The  Pennsylvania  borough  has  also  a 


A  Macadamized  Road. 


chief  executive  known  as  the  chief  burgess.  The  other  officers 
are  about  the  same  as  in  the  township.  The  formation  of 
this  kind  of  government  is  often  a  step  toward  city  govern- 
ment, but  some  communities  wait  a  long  time  before  they 
reach  that  condition. 

168.  Formation  of  Cities.  —  We  have  learned  that  a  city 
is  a  community,  for  the  most  part  thickly  settled,  which  is 
governed  under  a  charter  giving  it  extensive  powers  for 
the  administration  of  its  own  local  affairs.  The  number  of 
people  required  to  form  a  city  varies  in  different  states. 


%m 


Local  Governments 


Some  states  have  no  definite  requirement,  and  may  use  the 
word  for  small  communities  as  well  as  large  ones.  Others 
require  a  specified  population,  such  as  10,000,  for  example. 
It  is  common  for  states  to  group  their  cities  in  classes,  in 
accordance  with  their  population. 

The  charter  of  the  city  corresponds  to  the  constitution  in 
the  national  or  state  government.  In  some  states  the  legis- 
lature passes  a  special 
law  for  the  purpose  every 
time  a  city  is  chartered, 
but  in  others  there  are 
general  laws  which  all 
cities  of  a  certain  size 
must  abide  by  when  they 
adopt  city  government. 
In  most  states  the  city 
is  a  part  of  the  county 
to  which  it  belongs,  but 
its  only  real  superior  is, 
after  all,  the  state  gov- 
ernment itself;  for  the  legislature  has  power  to  alter 
completely  the  city's  government.  Many  honest  sup- 
porters of  reform  in  city  government  advocate  "home 
rule"  for  cities.  They  believe  that  each  city  should  have 
the  right  to  frame  its  own  charter  and  work  out  the  details 
of  its  government  to  suit  its  own  needs. 

What  is  the  law  of  your  own  state  concerning  the  formation  of 
cities? 


Municipal  Building,  Springfield,  Massa 
chusetts. 


169.  City  Officials.  —  Most  cities  have  a  mayor,  who  is 
the  executive  head  of  the  city  government.  In  addition  to 
enforcing  the  ordinances  of  the  city,  he  generally  has  the 
right  to  appoint  many  city  officials,  and  to  sign  or  veto  all 
ordinances  of  the  city  councils.  His  salary  varies  from 
almost  nothing  in  the  smaller  cities  to  $15,000  in  New  York. 

The  lawmaking  part  of  the  city  government  may  be  in 


City  Officials 


263 


either  one  or  two  houses.  If  there  is  only  one,  it  is  called 
the  council.  If  there  are  two  bodies,  the  smaller  is  called 
the  aldermen  or  select  council,  and  the  larger  the  common 
council.  The  term  of  office  of  both  mayor  and  council 
varies  with  the  city  or  state.  It  may  be  either  one,  two,  or 
four  years. 

Whether  power  shall  be  divided  evenly  between  mayor  and 
council,  so  that  one  may  serve  as  a  check  on  the  other,  or 
whether  almost  all  power 
of  administration  should 
be  placed  in  the  mayor's 
hands,  so  that  he  may  be 
held  responsible  for  the 
government  of  the  city,  is 
a  question  over  which  the 
practice  of  cities  has  not 
been  uniform.  The  tend- 
ency of  the  present 
time  is  toward  centraliza- 
tion of  power  in  the 
mayor.  It  is  the  rule, 
however,  that  his  ap- 
pointments must  be  con- 
firmed by  the  council,  and 
that  a  two-thirds  vote  of 
the  lawmaking  branch  may  pass  an  ordinance  over  his  veto. 

Very  many  administrative  officials  are  needed  in  a  large 
city,  and  these  are  commonly  grouped  into  a  few  great  depart- 
ments. Every  city  must  have,  under  some  name  or  other,  a 
department  of  public  works,  to  look  after  highways,  sewers, 
water  supply,  and  the  like ;  a  department  of  public  safety, 
controlling  policemen,  firemen,  building  inspectors,  and 
similar  officers;  a  department  of  health;  and  perhaps  a 
department  of  charities  and  other  departments  to  meet  the 
peculiar  needs  of  the  city.  A  treasurer,  a  controller,  a  city 
solicitor   or    attorney,    and    others    may    also    be   found. 


Public 
WorKS 


^Jife   c 


Subordinate    Bureaus  and   Officials 

Common  Type  of  City  Government. 

Notice  the  division  of  authority.  Mayor 
and  Council  are  so  "checked  and  bal- 
anced" that  it  is  hard  to  tell  who  is 
responsible  for  anything. 


264 


Local  Governments 


Every  city  has  its  school  board  or  board  of  education,  which 
in  many  states  is  allowed  to  manage  its  affairs  independ- 
ently of  the  other  administrative  departments. 

In  many  states  the  judicial  branch  of  the  city  government 
is  relatively  less  important  than  the  others,  for  most  crimes 
and  lawsuits  will  be  taken  up  directly  by  the  county  courts  or 
lowest  grade  of  the  state  court  system.  But  there  are  always 
police  judges  or  magistrates  who  have  authority  over  small 
cases,  especially  violations  of  city  ordinances,  and  who  give 


Old  Style  Cobblestone  Street. 

hearings  to  persons  accused  of  graver  crimes,  just  as  a  justice 
of  the  peace  does  in  the  township. 

Too  often  in  the  police  courts  justice  is  tempered  with 
politics,  and  the  magistrates  may  be  men  wholly  without 
fitness  for  the  duties  they  perform.  No  phase  of  the  ad- 
ministration of  "  justice "  is  so  unsatisfactory  as  this. 
It  is  not  strange  that  the  foreigner,  who  sees  more  of  the 
police  and  the  magistrate  than  of  any  other  public  officials, 
wonders  if  what  he  gets  from  them  is  the  liberty  he  heard 
about  before  he  came  across  the  ocean  to  us. 

If  you  live  in  a  city,  outline  thoroughly  its  frame  of  government. 
How  many  of  its  officials  are  you  personally  acquainted  with  or  do 
you  know  by  sight?    Why  is  the  position  of  police  magistrate  so 


City  Problems  265 

commonly  filled  by  unfit  men?  Find  out  if  your  father  knew  all 
the  men  for  whom  he  voted  in  the  last  local  election.  What  were 
the  leading  issues  in  that  election  ? 

170.  City  Problems.  —  The  wonderful  growth  of  cities 
has  often  taken  place  so  suddenly  and  quietly  that  men  have 
been  surprised  and  shocked  when  some  great  problem  seemed 
to  burst  upon  them  all  at  once.  The  packing  together  in 
small  compass  of  thousands  of  people  and  millions  of  dollars 


A  Street  Corner  in  Pasadena,  California. 
A  pepper-tree  is  in  the  foreground.    The  men  are  taking  moving  pictures. 

of  wealth  would  alone  give  rise  to  many  difficulties.  Add  to 
this  the  coming  of  millions  of  foreigners,  ignorant  of  American 
life  and  ideals,  most  of  whom  herd  in  the  cities,  and  the  situ- 
ation is  tenfold  worse. 

National  political  issues  have  attracted  the  attention  of 
voters  much  more  than  local  questions,  except  when  the  taxes 
rose  beyond  endurance.  In  some  cities  graft,  bribery,  and  all 
the  other  evils  of  rotten  politics  have  had  their  way  almost 
without  hindrance  for  years  together. 

"  The  government  of  cities  is  the  one  conspicuous  failure 
of  the  United  States."    So  runs  a  familiar  quotation  from 


266 


Local  Governments 


the  Hon.  James  Bryce.  We  have  tried  to  govern  them  by  the 
same  means  which  we  used  for  the  agricultural  districts 
in  the  old  states,  and  found  only  too  late  that  other  methods 
were  needed.  We  have  borrowed  money  by  the  millions  and 
spent  it  on  public  works  constructed  by  contractors  who 
"  stood  in  "  with  the  politicians  who  ran  the  city,  and  we  have 
learned  after  it  was  all  spent  that  we  should  have  to  pay 
interest  on  it  for  two  or  three  generations. 

Only  as  the  best  citizens  are  willing  to  sacrifice  a  little  time 
and  energy  to  help  keep  city  government  in  the  hands  of 
honest  and  competent  officials  can  we  hope  to  find  relief 
from  these  ills.  Happily  the  situation  seems  brighter  than 
ever  now,  and  there  is  reason  to  hope  that  the  worst  of  our 
cities'  shame  is  past. 

171.  Special  Plans  of  City  Government.  —  Dissatisfied 
with  the  ordinary  type  of  government,  many  cities  have 
tried  something  new  in  the  hope  of  getting  more  efficiency 

and  honesty  of  adminis- 


VOTERS 


**e. 


Commissioners 


Manager 


Charities   Health  Supplies 


tration.  A  plan  which 
is  now  in  operation  in 
over  300  places  in  the 
country  is  called  the 
commission  form  of  gov- 
ernment. A  small  body, 
often  five  in  number,  is 
elected  by  the  voters  as 
a  commission  who  will 
exercise  both  the  legis- 
lative and  administra- 
tive functions. 

The  commission 
makes  the  ordinances 
needed  for  the  city. 
Each  member  of  it  is  the  head  of  a  department.  One  of  them 
may  be  called  the  mayor,  but  his  power  is  little  greater  than 
that  of  the  others.     The  theory  is  that  this  small  commission 


Public     Public 

Subordinate   Bureaus  and  Officials 

The  City  Manager  Plan. 

Observe  the  simplicity  of  it  and  its  cen- 
tralization of  responsibility. 


Questions  267 

will  feel  special  responsibility  for  doing  its  work  well,  and 
by  operating  all  branches  of  the  government  in  harmony, 
waste  and  confusion  will  be  almost  wholly  avoided. 

In  the  city  manager  plan,  which  is  much  like  the  system 
in  vogue  in  many  well-governed  European  cities,  centraliza- 
tion is  carried  still  further.  One  man  is  chosen  by  the  council 
or  commission  to  assume  entire  charge  of  the  administration 
of  the  city's  affairs  and  he  is  given  whatever  power  is  neces- 
sary to  enable  him  to  get  results.  Dayton,  Ohio,  and  a 
number  of  smaller  places  are  governed  in  this  way.  Thus 
far  it  must  be  considered  in  the  light  of  an  experiment  in 
this  country,  but  it  seems  to  have  worked  well  almost  every- 
where that  it  has  been  tried.  The  state  of  Kansas  has 
adopted  a  similar  system  for  handling  state  public  business. 

QUESTIONS 

What  is  a  county ?  Why  is  it  formed ?  Who  forms  it?  What 
are  the  subdivisions  of  a  county?  (Be  sure  you  understand  how 
things  are  in  your  state.) 

Distinguish  the  systems  of  local  government  which  developed  in 
colonial  times.  Which  of  these  prevails  in  your  state?  How  does 
their  effect  appear  in  other  sections  of  the  country  ?  How  and  why 
did  this  come  about? 

How  many  counties  in  your  state  ?  Can  you  make  any  general 
statement  about  their  size  and  form  ?  Which  are  largest  and  smallest 
in  area  and  population  ?  How  does  your  county  compare  with  the 
rest?  What  is  the  county  seat  of  your  county?  Why  was  that 
place  chosen? 

What  are  the  duties  of  county  commissioners  t  Of  what  is  the 
county  board  composed  under  the  New  York  plan?  Name  five 
other  offices  which  are  found  in  county  governments  almost  every- 
where. 

What  relation  does  the  town  or  township  government  bear  to  its 
people  ?  Explain  the  relation  of  the  township  to  the  other  agencies 
of  government?     What  is  a  Congressional  township? 

Define  town  as  the  word  is  used  in  New  England.  Describe  the 
town  meeting  and  show  its  political  significance.  Mention  the 
principal  town  officers  and  state  their  chief  duties. 

Point  out  the  differences  between  the  middle  states'  township  and 


268  Local  Governments 

the  New  England  town.  Which  form  of  local  government  do  you 
like  better  ? 

Why  are  boroughs  and  incorporated  villages  formed?  What  is 
their  connection  with  other  governmental  agencies  ?  How  are  they 
governed? 

What  is  a  city?  Explain  its  frame  of  government.  What  is 
meant  by  home  rule  for  cities?  Do  you  believe  in  it?  Make  an 
outline  or  diagram  of  the  government  of  your  own  city.  What  are 
the  duties  of  its  chief  officials  ? 

Why  have  serious  evils  arisen  in  the  conduct  of  city  governments  ? 
How  are  these  evils  illustrated  by  the  police  courts  and  the  public 
works?     What  is  the  best  remedy  for  such  conditions? 

Describe  the  commission  plan  of  city  government;  the  city 
manager  plan.  What  is  your  opinion  of  them?  Would  you  like 
either  of  them  in  your  own  community  better  than  what  you  have? 


SPECIAL  TOPICS 

Most  of  the  special  work  done  in  connection  with  this  chapter 
should  consist  of  a  definite  and  thorough  study  of  the  pupil's  own 
county  and  of  the  subdivision  of  it  in  which  he  lives.  Let  him  make 
a  good  map  of  the  county,  showing  its  subdivisions.  He  should 
be  familiar  with  its  natural,  industrial,  and  other  special  features. 
The  particular  type  of  county  government  which  prevails  in  his 
state,  the  offices  of  his,  county  government,  and  the  persons  who 
hold  the  important  positions,  should  all  be  studied.  Some  one 
might  sketch  the  history  of  the  county. 

In  the  study  of  the  "Elements  of  Community  Welfare "  many  of 
the  local  activities  will  have  been  taken  up  with  all  necessary 
thoroughness,  and  nothing  further  will  remain  except  a  connected 
outline  of  the  machinery  of  local  government  and  some  comparison 
with  other  forms.  The  New  England  town  meeting  will  repay  some 
study,  no  matter  what  system  may  be  locally  in  vogue.  If  you  have 
the  town  meeting,  by  all  means  let  the  class  conduct  a  session  or  two 
themselves  and  visit  one  if  possible. 

Resolved,  that  the  city  manager  plan  of  government  is  the  best 
yet  suggested. 

Resolved,  that  the  New  England  town  meeting  system  should  be 
introduced  in  all  townships  of  less  than  5000  people. 


PAKT   IV 

PROBLEMS  OF  NATIONAL  SCOPE 

A.    Financial  Problems 

CHAPTER   XIX 

MONEY  AND  OEEDIT 


To  secure  the  fullest  development  of  the  resources  of  the  country 
and  the  freest  interchange  of  commodities  and  services,  an  adequate 
supply  of  the  media  of  exchange  is  essential.  —  Bogart. 


172.  Money  and  Its  Uses.  —  If  every  person  who  had  a 
sheep  to  dispose  of  and  wanted  to  buy  a  chair  had  to  hunt 
around  till  he  found  some  one  who  had  a  chair  to  get  rid  of 
and  wished  to  get  a  sheep,  we  should  say  that  it  was  a  nui- 
sance of  the  worst  kind.  Yet  once  that  was  the  only  way  to 
trade.  We  call  it  barter  —  exchanging  one  thing  directly  for 
another.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  under  such  circumstances 
little  trading  would  take  place. 

As  soon  as  a  community  makes  much  progress  toward 
civilization  —  and  trade  has  very  much  to  do  with  producing 
civilization  —  it  must  have  some  commodity  which  every 
one  is  willing  to  take  in  exchange  for  the  things  which  he  is 
willing  to  dispose  of,  iaiowing  that  with  it  he  can  get  the 
things  which  he  himself  desires.  A  commodity  which  serves 
this  need  and  acts  as  a  medium  of  exchange  is  known  as 
money. 

Money  helps  also  in  other  ways.  We  can  compare  the 
value  of  other  things  with  the  value  of  a  certain  piece  of 


270  Money  and  Credit 

money,  and  so  have  a  way  of  expressing  or  measuring  the 
value  of  any  article  of  trade.  If  we  make  a  trade  to-day  but 
do  not  receive  or  give  pay  for  it  until  a  later  time,  we  can 
express  the  value  of  what  is  to  be  paid  at  a  later  time  in  terms 
of  money.  Money  has,  therefore,  three  important  uses  — 
as  a  medium  of  exchange,  as  a  measure  of  value,  and  as  a 
standard  for  deferred  payments.  Without  it,  modern  busi- 
ness would  be  utterly  impossible. 

173.  Characteristics  of  Money.  —  A  commodity  to  be 
generally  acceptable  as  money  must  have  some  value  in  itself. 
Possibly  a  nation  which  had  no  business  dealings  whatever 
with  the  outside  world  could  print  pieces  of  paper  and  say  that 
every  one  must  take  these  as  money.  But  if  it  cares  to  trade 
with  another  nation,  that  nation  wants  something  which  it 
can  use  itself  in  exchange  for  the  goods  it  sells.  A  second 
necessity  is  that  it  shall  contain  enough  value  in  a  small  bulk 
to  make  it  easy  to  carry  around.  Otherwise  the  inconvenience 
of  using  it  would  almost  offset  any  advantages  it  possessed. 

Again,  it  must  not  wear  out  quickly  v  Otherwise  there 
would  be  no  certainty  that  a  piece  of  it  would  always  retain 
the  value  it  was  supposed  to  have.  Further,  it  must  be 
readily  distinguished  from  other  commodities,  so  that  it 
cannot  be  easily  counterfeited.  And  it  ought  to  be  capable 
of  division,  so  that  various  amounts  can  be  represented  by 
pieces  of  money.  To  put  the  thought  in  a  few  words,  money 
should  have  value  in  itself,  and  should  be  portable,  durable, 
recognizable,  and  divisible. 

To  find  a  commodity  that  will  answer  all  these  require- 
ments is  not  easy.  The  strings  of  shells  which  the  Indians 
called  wampum  might  do  for  them  and  for  people  who  traded 
only  with  them,  but  would  not  at  all  suit  an  advanced  com- 
munity. Salt  has  enough  value  among  some  savage  tribes 
so  that  it  has  been  used,  but  its  durability  is  decidedly  open 
to  question.  Long  experience  has  shown  that  of  all  the  com- 
modities that  have  been  tried  gold  and  silver  meet  most  nearly 
all  the  requirements. 


Our  Currency  System  271 

Mention  five  commonly  known  commodities  which  would  be 
suitable  for  use  as  money,  and  five  which  would  not  be,  giving 
reasons. 

In  order  to  identify  different  amounts  of  it,  governments 
stamp  pieces  of  it  with  distinctive  marks.  Such  pieces  we 
call  coins.  Copper  and  nickel  are  used  to  help  out  for  certain 
small  amounts.  Paper  is  also  extensively  used.  This  fact 
may  seem  to  conflict  with  our  statement  that  money  must 
have  value  in  itself.  But  if  the  paper  can  itself  be  exchanged 
for  gold  or  silver,  or  has  gold  or  silver  held  in  reserve  to  make 
it  good,  it  is  as  acceptable  as  the  metal  it  represents. 
The  great  convenience  of  paper  money  makes  its  use  very 
desirable  if  it  is  suitably  protected. 

174.  Our  Currency  System.  —  Our  decimal  system  of  coin- 
age was  adopted  in  1784  at  the  suggestion  of  Thomas  Jeffer- 
son, and  is  the  most  convenient  system  for  reckoning  in 
existence.  For  many  years  there  was  a  dispute  over  the 
question  of  monometallism  or  bimetallism.  Should  we  use 
one  metal  alone  as  a  standard,  or  try  to  keep  both  gold  and 
silver  as  standard  at  a  comparative  value  fixed  by  law? 

Most  people  in  the  United  States  seemed  for  many  years 
to  prefer  the  double  standard,  but  it  was  difficult  to  find  a 
ratio  which  would  always  agree  with  the  comparative  value 
of  gold  and  silver  when  used  for  other  purposes  than  coinage. 
In  1900  the  present  law  was  passed  which  made  the  gold 
dollar  the  standard  for  our  currency.  23.22  grains  of  gold 
constitute  the  standard  weight  of  the  dollar.  To  this  is  added 
other  metal  as  alloy,  enough  to  equal  one  tenth  of  the  whole 
weight  of  the  coin. 

By  a  queer  paradox  the  standard  coin  of  our  system  is  not 
coined  at  all.  The  gold  dollar  is  a  little  too  small  for  con- 
venience. We  have  gold  pieces  in  values  of  $2.50,  $5,  $10, 
and  $20  —  quarter-eagle,  half-eagle,  eagle,  and  double  eagle. 
Silver  dollars  are  no  longer  coined,  either,  but  such  an  enor- 
mous number  have  been  coined  in  the  past  that  we  do  not  need 
any  more.    Besides,  they  are  awkward  things  to  carry  around. 


27£  Money  and  Credit 

We  have  silver  pieces  reckoned  at  50,  25,  and  10  cents.  The 
nickels,  which  are  four  fifths  copper,  and  the  cents,  which 
are  mostly  of  bronze,  complete  our  list  of  coins. 

There  are  four  mints  at  which  coins  are  now  made.  The 
oldest  is  that  at  Philadelphia,  and  the  others  are  at  New 
Orleans,  Denver,  and  San  Francisco.  Coins  made  at  mints 
other  than  Philadelphia  are  marked  with  a  little  letter  to 
distinguish  the  place. 

Some  people  have  a  notion  that  the  more  money  there  is  in 
circulation,  the  richer  the  people  are.  That  is  a  big  mistake. 
Instead,  economists  tell  us  that  the  greater  the  amount  of 
money  in  circulation,  the  higher  are  prices  of  goods  likely  to 
be.  If  we  have  enough  for  convenience  in  actual  purchases 
of  goods  and  payment  of  wages,  much  more  would  be  detri- 
mental rather  than  helpful. 

The  report  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  on  October  1, 
1920,  announced  that  there  were  in  circulation  $387,016,649 
in  gold  certificates,  $123,125,065  in  silver  certificates, 
$337,388,247  in  United  States  notes,  $710,434,542  in  national 
bank  notes,  $835,498,298  in  gold,  $394,547,503  in  silver  coin, 
and  $3,508,112,856  in  notes  issued  through  the  Federal 
Reserve  system.  That  was  equivalent  to  about  $58.63  for 
every  man,  woman,  and  child  in  the  United  States. 

If  you  did  not  have  as  much  as  that,  where  do  you  suppose  it  was? 

175.  Our  Paper  Money.  —  The  paper  money  now  in  use 
is  of  five  kinds.  Gold  certificates  represent  actual  gold  coin 
or  bullion  kept  in  the  United  States  Treasury.  Silver  certifi- 
cates represent  silver  coin  in  the  Treasury. 

The  United  States  notes  were  once  commonly  called  green- 
backs. They  were  first  issued  during  the  Civil  War.  They 
were  made  legal  tender,  that  is,  any  one  must  take  them  when 
they  are  offered  in  payment  of  a  debt.  They  are  nothing 
more  than  a  promise  on  the  part  of  the  United  States  govern- 
ment to  pay  the  sum  mentioned  on  the  face  of  the  note.  If 
people  have  confidence  in  the  United  States  government, 


Meaning  and  Importance  of  Credit      £73 

they  are  as  willing  to  take  them  as  any  other  kind  of  money. 
To-day  any  one  can  exchange  them  for  any  other  kind  of 
money,  and  so  we  would  just  as  soon  have  them  as  anything 
else.  But  that  was  not  true  during  the  Civil  War  and  their 
value  went  away  down  in  comparison  with  gold. 

National  bank  notes  are  a  form  of  paper  money  issued 
by  the  national  banks.  Federal  reserve  notes  and  federal 
reserve  bank  notes  are  issued  through  the  banks  belonging 
to  the  federal  reserve  system  (§  181).  They  are  backed 
up  by  bonds,  notes,  or  other  securities  held  by  the 
banks. 

Compare  the  different  kinds  of  paper  money,  and  notice  the  word- 
ing on  them. 

176.  Meaning  and  Importance  of  Credit.  —  With  all  the 
convenience  which  money  affords,  it  would  be  embarrassing 
for  any  business  man  to  be  obliged  to  carry  with  him  every- 
where he  went  the  money  which  he  might  need  to  carry  on 
his  business.  Large  business  transactions  between  one 
city  and  another  would  be  almost  impossible,  if  actual 
money  had  to  change  hands  with  every  trade.  Happily 
credit  takes  the  place  of  money  in  ninety-five  per  cent  of  the 
business  transactions  of  to-day.  Credit  is  simply  the  giving 
or  receiving  of  a  promise  to  pay  in  place  of  actual  money 
payment. 

By  the  use  of  credit  a  merchant  in  San  Francisco  can  trade 
freely  with  a  merchant  in  New  York  or  Yokohama.  Much 
less  money  is  needed  than  would  otherwise  be  the  case,  and 
our  stock  of  the  precious  metals  can  be  used  for  many  other 
purposes.  Because  credit  exists,  great  business  enterprises 
can  be  undertaken  which  could  otherwise  never  be  risked. 
Even  governments  themselves  depend  upon  credit  for  the 
most  of  the  financial  operations  which  they  themselves  carry 
on.  Every  private  enterprise  too  employs  it.  True,  it  is 
based  on  the  existence  of  money,  but  money  without  credit 
might  be  even  less  useful  than  credit  without  money. 


274 


Money  and  Credit 


To  what  extent  is  credit  used  in  the 
family  is  connected? 


business  with  which  your 


177.  Credit  Instruments. —  The  forms  of  legal  papers 
which  we  use  in  giving  or  accepting  credit  we  call  credit 
instruments.     Of  these  there  are  at  least  five  kinds. 


Il 

IP 

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Hit  i> 

'   Hi  ■tJ  «--'*r^Ti 

'!  "II       "  . "  m***  • 

MM  l 

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■  -  Bfll  pHHHI 

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Some  of  the  Big  Business  Houses  of  a  Great  City. 

Two  large  department  stores  are  in  sight,  as  well  as  some  costly  office 
buildings.  The  stores  do  both  a  cash  and  a  credit  business  in  selling  their 
goods,  but  it  is  evident  that  neither  their  buildings  nor  their  business  could 
exist  if  they  had  to  pay  actual  money  every  time  they  made  a  contract  or 
a  purchase  themselves. 

The  simplest  form  of  credit  is  book  credit.  When  a  person 
gets  goods  at  a  store  and  says,  "  Charge  it,"  he  is  making  use 
of  this  form  of  credit.  If  the  merchant  thinks  the  purchaser 
will  pay  his  bills  in  a  reasonable  time,  he  will  take  the  promise 
implied  in  the  words  "  Charge  it,"  and  record  the  sale  on  his 
books,  with  the  understanding  that  the  purchaser  will  pay 
at  some  future  time,  perhaps  the  first  of  the  next  month. 


Credit  Instruments  275 

But  often  we  want  something  more  than  a  person's  word. 
In  that  case  we  may  ask  for  a  promissory  note.  This  may  read 
about  as  follows : 

$400.  Washington,  D.C.,  Dec.  23,  1916 

Sixty  days  after  date  I  promise  to  pay  to  the  order  of  Theodore 

Wilson,  Four  Hundred  Dollars,  with  interest  at  6%.     Value 

received. 

Woodrow  Roosevelt. 

This  is  a  definite  written  promise  to  pay  at  a  specified  time. 
Sometimes  the  place  of  payment  is  also  mentioned.  When 
the  note  is  due,  the  man  to  whom  it  is  owed,  called  the  payee, 
may  either  collect  it  in  person  or  turn  it  over  to  his  bank, 
which  will  collect  it  from  the  bank  where  the  man  who  drew 
the  note  does  his  banking  business.  Sometimes  a  note  is 
cashed  before  it  is  due.  In  that  case  the  bank  deducts  from 
the  note  the  amount  of  interest  from  the  time  it  is  "  dis- 
counted "  until  it  falls  due. 

Another  means  of  paying  a  debt  without  the  use  of  money 
is  by  check.  This  is  a  written  order  directed  to  a  bank  where 
a  person  has  money  deposited,  instructing  it  to  pay  a  stated 
amount  to  a  particular  person  or  to  his  order.  Like  a  promis- 
sory note  a  check  is  usually  negotiable  —  that  is,  it  can  be 
signed  —  "  endorsed  "  —  by  the  person  to  whom  it  is  made 
out  and  turned  over  to  another  party.  Sooner  or  later  it  will 
be  deposited  in  a  bank  by  some  one,  and  then  returned  to  the 
bank  on  which  it  is  drawn. 

No.  9999  Cleveland,  Ohio,  Jan.  4,  1917 

The  First  National  Bank 
Pay  to  the  order  of  John  D.  Carnegie  $1542.78 

One  Thousand  Five  Hundred  and  Forty-Two     and  -ffe  Dollars 

Andrew  Rockefeller 


276  Money  and  Credit 

A  draft  differs  somewhat  from  a  check  in  form,  and  may 
mention  a  specific  time  in  the  future  when  payment  is  to  be 
made.  Drafts  are  often  made  "  on  sight,"  also.  The  person 
who  wishes  to  pay  the  money  is  understood  to  have  a  regular 
business  account  with  the  firm  to  whom  the  draft  is  directed. 

$562.00  Boston,  Mass.,  February  6,  1915 

Ten  days  after  date,  pay  to  Peter  Henderson  &  Co.,  or  order, 

Five  Hundred  and  Sixty-two  Dollars,  value  received,  and  charge 

to  my  account. 

m    t   ™   at  p  m  Henry  Cabot  Lowell 

To  J.  P.  Morgan  &  Co., 

New  York 

A  bill  of  exchange  is  on  the  same  principle  as  a  draft.  It  is 
used  particularly  in  trade  with  foreign  countries,  and  is  fre- 
quently made  out  in  terms  of  foreign  money.  A  person,  for 
instance,  wishing  to  make  a  payment  to  some  one  in  London 
might  buy  a  bill  of  exchange  for  the  amount  he  wished  to  pay 
from  a  New  York  banking  firm  which  has  some  London  firm 
as  its  regular  financial  correspondent.  The  buyer  can  then 
send  the  bill  to  his  creditor  in  London,  who  will  present  it  to 
the  London  firm  and  get  his  money. 

Find  the  meaning  of  "two  name  paper,"  "call  notes,"  "short 
term  "  and  "  long  term  "  paper.    What  is  a  trade  acceptance  f 

178.  Banks  and  Their  Services.  —  In  speaking  of  credit 
instruments  we  have  mentioned  banks.  They  have  acquired 
a  position  in  the  financial  world  of  to-day  so  important  that 
upon  the  soundness  of  a  country's  banking  system  depends  in 
great  measure  its  business  prosperity.  A  bank  is  usually 
formed  by  a  group  of  people  who  organize  as  an  association 
to  receive  and  lend  money  and  to  facilitate  the  use  of  the 
credit  instruments  which  we  have  described. 

Banks  which  have  been  formed  under  the  supervision  of  the 
national  government,  which  own  some  of  its  bonds,  and  are 
inspected  at  irregular  intervals  by  its  agents,  are  called 


Banks  and  Their  Services 


277 


national  banks.  They  have  had  the  privilege  also  of  issuing 
bank  notes,  based  on  the  value  of  the  national  government 
bonds  that  they  own,  which  have  formed  one  of  our  common 
kinds  of  paper  money. 

Many  private  companies,  commonly  called  trust  companies, 
do  a  similar  kind  of  business,  and  in  addition  make  a  special 
point  of  investing  money  or  caring  for  the  property  of  other 
persons.     Congress  has  put  such  a  high  tax  on  bank  notes 


Entrances  to  a  Large  Bank. 
The  oldest  and  surest  kind  of  street  cleaning  is  going  on  in  front  of  it. 

issued  by  any  other  than  national  banks  that  all  the  profit 
which  might  come  from  the  use  of  such  notes  is  removed  and 
these  banks  do  not  issue  them. 

In  addition  to  receiving  and  lending  money,  banks  may 
lend  their  credit.  If  a  person  borrows  $2000  from  a  bank,  it 
may  simply  credit  him  on  its  books  with  that  sum  and  let 
him  draw  checks  against  it.  Meanwhile  it  charges  him  inter- 
est on  the  $2000  which  he  has  borrowed,  though  it  may  not 
have  actually  handed  him  a  cent  in  real  money. 

In  receiving  deposits  from  individuals,  banks  render  a  dis- 
tinct service,  for  in  this  way  funds  are  brought  together  which 
might  separately  be  too  small  to  be  of  much  use  in  the  indus- 


278 


Money  and  Credit 


.TtrffitltTfjITilfWi 
ill*!!**! 

Lllli 


trial  world,  but  after  being  collected  can  be  invested  by  the 
bank  profitably. 

Many  banks  maintain  a  savings  department  apart  from 
the  accounts  against  which  checks  can  be  drawn.  They  pay 
a  larger  interest  to  the  depositor  on  savings  accounts  than  on 

checking  accounts,  for 
the  latter  are  chiefly  con- 
ducted as  a  convenience 
in  business  and  perhaps 
no  interest  at  all  is  paid 
except  on  large  sums. 
Banks  render  a  service, 
too,  in  discounting  notes 
and  drafts  when  some 
one  wants  cash  for  them 
before  they  are  due. 

179.  The  Clearing- 
house.—  To  require 
every  bank  to  maintain 
separate  accounts  with 
every  other  bank  would 
mean  endless  confusion 
and  trouble.  To  let  ac- 
counts run  for  a  long 
period  without  settle- 
ment would  be  danger- 
ous, and  to  settle  with 
each  bank  directly  every 
day  would  be  physically 
impossible.  A  bank  in 
one  community  therefore  usually  arranges  with  a  particular 
bank  in  another  community  to  act  as  its  agent  there,  and 
carries  on  its  financial  business  with  that  section  through 
that  bank. 

In  every  large  city  there  is  also  an  organization  called  the 
clearing  house.    Here  are  gathered  each  business  day  the 


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a  si  mm 

r  lltlllll 
lllltlllll 
IMI3III1I 
till  HiJ.lt 
IjllMHlll 
1*1*111111 

'KIIIIUI 
HUM  If  II 
•  Ml  II II  || 


Bank  and  Office  Buildings. 

Farmers'  Bank  and  First-Second  National 
Bank,  Pittsburgh. 


Dangers  in  the  Use  of  Credit 


279 


returns  from  each  banking  institution  in  the  city.  Checks 
and  drafts  received  by  one  bank  upon  another  are  turned  over 
to  the  proper  institution  and  everything  is  straightened  out 
very  simply  and  easily. 

The  clearing  house  also  helps  each  banking  institution  to 
keep  in  touch  with  the  general  course  of  financial  matters  in 
the  community.     Sometimes  the  clearing  house,  as  represent- 


Couriesy  of  Am.  Tel.  &  Tel.  Co. 
Broad  Street,  Philadelphia,  To-day. 
An  important  business  center. 

ing  the  banking  interests  of  the  whole  city,  will  give  help  at  a 
time  of  special  stress  to  a  bank  which  is  really  sound  and 
honest  but  which  has  by  some  misfortune  fallen  into  a  little 
difficulty.  By  saving  such  a  bank  from  closing  its  doors  it 
may  have  served  notably  the  financial  welfare  of  the  entire 
community  as  well  as  one  particular  institution. 

180.  Dangers  in  the  Use  of  Credit.  —  The  use  of  credit 
brings  some  dangers  against  which  we  must  guard.  The  ease 
with  which  credit  can  be  employed  to  draw  interest  without 


280  Money  and  Credit 

risking  actual  cash,  and  the  profit  derived  in  that  way,  may 
lead  to  carrying  it  too  far.  No  bank  attempts  to  keep  on 
hand  more  than  fifteen  per  cent  to  twenty-five  per  cent  of  the 
amount  of  money  which  has  been  deposited  with  it,  for  it  is 
seldom  that  any  large  part  of  those  deposits  would  be  called 
for  at  any  one  time. 

But  if  too  many  credit  loans  have  been  made  and  the 
amount  cannot  be  collected  on  short  notice,  a  bank  may  have 
to  close  its  doors  until  its  affairs  can  be  straightened  out. 
Such  an  occurrence  is  always  embarrassing  even  if  the  bank 
is  really  solvent.  Extravagance,  speculation  in  the  rise  and 
fall  of  stocks,  stock  watering,  and  other  features  of  what  is 
sometimes  called  "  high  finance  "  are  the  outcome  of  a  wrong 
use  of  a  most  valuable  feature  of  modern  finance. 

181.  The  Federal  Banking  System.  —  The  national  bank- 
ing system  which  is  in  operation  to-day  was  founded  during 
the  Civil  War  in  order  to  create  an  additional  market  for  the 
bonds  issued  by  the  government  and  to  add  a  new,  acceptable 
kind  of  paper  currency.  For,  as  we  have  explained,  each 
national  bank  was  required  to  own  government  bonds  and 
could  issue  bank  notes  with  the  bonds  to  back  them. 

For  many  years  after  1863  there  was  little  system  about 
our  national  banks.  Several  financial  panics  showed  that 
something  was  out  of  joint.  After  years  of  study  of  our  bank- 
ing system,  the  measure  now  in  force,  known  as  the  Glass- 
Owen  act,  was  passed  by  Congress  in  1913. 

Every  national  bank  in  the  country  is  required  to  join  the 
federal  reserve  system  established  by  the  law,  and  banks 
chartered  under  state  laws  are  permitted  to  join.  The  country 
is  divided  into  twelve  reserve  districts,  and  in  an  important 
city  of  each  district  a  federal  reserve  bank  is  established. 

In  which  district  are  you  ?  Where  is  your  reserve  bank  located  ? 
If  you  can  get  the  information,  make  a  map  showing  the  division  of 
the  country  into  reserve  districts. 

A  reserve  bank  does  not  deal  with  individual  depositors, 
but  with  the  banks  that  belong  to  that  district.    It  discounts 


Questions  281 

notes  and  the  like  for  them,  and  on  the  basis  of  the  notes 
which  they  deposit  with  it  the  reserve  bank  provides  them 
with  federal  reserve  notes  to  use  as  currency.  These  are 
expected  soon  to  take  the  place  of  the  national  bank  notes 
issued  by  the  separate  banks. 

The  reserve  bank  in  each  district  is  managed  by  a  board  of 
nine  directors,  three  of  whom  are  chosen  by  the  Federal 
Reserve  Board  and  six  by  the  banks  in  the  district.  The 
Federal  Reserve  Board  supervises  the  whole  system.  It  has 
seven  members,  including  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  the 
Comptroller  of  the  Currency,  and  five  other  persons  appointed 
by  the  President. 

The  system  has  worked  well  during  the  trying  period  since 
it  was  established.  Its  friends  say  it  will  prevent  any  more 
financial  panics.  The  reserve  board  in  each  district  can  so 
adjust  matters  as  to  relieve  its  own  banks  when  any  one  of 
them  needs  help  of  any  kind,  and  the  Federal  Reserve  Board 
can  make  any  adjustments  that  are  called  for  between  one 
district  and  another.  The  centralized  control  which  was 
sadly  needed  is  now  supplied,  and  as  far  as  can  be  seen  every 
conceivable  emergency  has  been  provided  for. 


QUESTIONS 

Explain  barter.  What  are  its  disadvantages  ?  What  is  money  f 
For  what  is  it  used?  What  characteristics  should  a  commodity 
have  in  order  to  make  it  useful  as  money  ?  What  coins  do  we  now 
have  in  circulation?  What  other  United  States  coins  did  you  ever 
see?     Where  are  our  coins  made? 

What  forms  of  money  does  our  government  now  issue?  How 
do  they  compare  with  each  other  in  amount  ?  Explain  the  kinds  of 
paper  money.     What  makes  people  willing  to  accept  them? 

When  is  money  a  hindrance  to  business?  Describe  the  substi- 
tute which  is  commonly  used,  explaining  its  advantages.  Write 
four  forms  of  credit  instruments.  Explain  the  difference  between 
them.     Define  discount,  endorsement,  bill  of  exchange. 

Why  is  a  bank  organized  and  what  services  does  it  render? 
Explain  the  lending  of  credit.    How  differently  is  a  savings  account 


282  Money  and  Credit 

handled  by  a  bank  from  its  checking  accounts?  Where  do  the 
profits  of  a  bank  come  from?  What  is  the  value  of  the  clearing 
house  ?  Mention  some  of  the  dangers  of  operation  against  which  a 
bank  must  guard.  Could  a  bank  do  business  without  the  extensive 
use  of  credit?     What  is  meant  by  "high  finance"? 

How  did  our  present  national  banking  system  come  into  exist- 
ence? Describe  the  important  changes  in  the  system  introduced. 
Outline  the  organization  of  the  Federal  Reserve  system. 


SPECIAL  TOPICS 

Our  Mints  and  Their  Operation. 

The  Organization  and  Officers  of  a  Bank. 

The  Clearing  House. 

The  Federal  Reserve  Board :  Its  Members  and  Their  Work. 


CHAPTER  XX 

SOME  IMPORTANT  OOMMEEOIAL  TERMS 


The  richer  any  man  gets  by  honest  methods  in  productive  industry, 
the  richer  does  he  make  his  neighbors.— J-  A.  Puffer. 


182.  Property  and  Its  Ownership.  —  Among  the  funda- 
mental rights  of  citizenship  we  have  mentioned  that  of  private 
property.  We  commonly  divide  all  property  into  two  classes 
—  real  and  personal.  Real  property,  often  spoken  of  as  real 
estate,  includes  everything  that  is  fixed  and  permanent  in  its 
.  character.  Land,  for  example,  is  real  property.  So,  usually, 
is  anything  built  upon  the  land  or  growing  on  it  at  any  par- 
ticular time.  Personal  property  includes  all  that  is  movable 
and  may  with  reasonable  ease  be  carried  around  with  a  person 
wherever  he  goes.  Money,  cattle,  and  household  furniture 
are  examples  of  personal  property.  So  are  stocks  and 
bonds. 

Stocks  are  issued  by  corporations  to  those  who  invest  money 
in  their  business.  The  stockholders  are  entitled  to  share  in 
the  management  of  the  corporation,  and  in  its  profits,  if  there 
are  any.  Usually  a  stockholder  in  a  corporation  has  one 
vote  for  each  share  of  stock  that  he  owns. 

Bonds  are  promises  to  pay,  much  like  a  promissory  note. 
They  usually  are  arranged  to  run  for  a  fixed  length  of  time, 
with  interest  payable  annually,  semi-annually,  or  quarterly. 
They  form  a  definite  obligation  against  the  company  or 
government  which  issues  them,  and  interest  on  them  must  be 
paid  when  due  if  credit  is  to  be  maintained. 

283 


284      Some  Important  Commercial  Terms 

Stocks  are  often  of  two  kinds.  Preferred  stock  carries  a 
fixed  rate  of  interest,  which  must  be  paid  out  of  the  profits 
of  the  business  before  any  other  payments  are  made.  Com- 
mon stock  receives  whatever  is  left  after  the  preferred  stock 
has  been  attended  to.  If  the  business  is  very  profitable  the 
income  on  common  stock  may  be  greater  than  on  preferred, 
but  it  is  likely  to  vary  from  year  to  year  according  to  the 
prosperity  of  the  business. 

What  is  meant  by  this :  "D.  L.  &  W.  sold  at  240,  B.  &  M.  at  60"  ? 
How  is  this  possible  ?    What  is  a  stock  exchange  ? 

183.  Ways  of  Acquiring  Property.  —  "  Possession  is  nine 
points  of  the  law,"  says  a  familiar  proverb.  Perhaps,  but 
possession  and  ownership  are  not  the  same  thing.  Unless 
something  is  known  to  the  contrary,  •  possession  of  personal 
property  is  considered  evidence  of  ownership,  but  even  this 
class  of  property  may  sometimes  be  held  and  used  subject  to 
certain  conditions. 

A  man  may  have  the  right  to  use  certain  property  in  his  own 
lifetime  only,  or  he  may  lease  or  rent  it  for  a  definite  period. 
A  person  does  not  have  full  ownership  of  property  unless 
it  is  his  to  dispose  of  as  he  sees  fit  and  to  pass  on  to  his  heirs  at 
his  death.  The  three  common  ways  of  transferring  owner- 
ship are  by  inheritance,  gift,  and  sale. 

A  property  owner  may  at  any  time  in  his  lif e  make  a  written 
statement  of  the  way  he  desires  his  property  to  be  distributed 
at  his  death.  This  statement,  known  as  a  will,  must  be 
signed  in  the  presence  of  witnesses,  and  should  provide  for 
the  appointment  of  some  one  as  an  executor  to  carry  out  the 
terms  of  the  will.  A  new  will  may  be  made  at  any  time  to 
revoke  one  previously  made,  or  a  change  may  be  made  in  the 
original  by  adding  a  codicil  to  it. 

It  is  understood  that  the  making  of  a  will  is  one's  own  free 
act.  If  it  can  be  shown  that  the  maker  was  not  of  sound 
mind  or  was  subject  to  unfair  pressure  from  some  one  else 
the  courts  may  set  the  will  aside.    If  a  deceased  person  has 


Ways  of  Acquiring  Property  285 

left  no  will,  the  nearest  relatives  inherit.  In  that  case  the 
court  appoints  an  administrator  to  settle  the  estate  according 
to  law. 

In  your  state  what  name  is  used  for  the  court  or  official  to  whom 
wills  are  presented?     Find  out  the  customary  procedure. 

A  second  method  of  transferring  title  to  property  is  by 
gift.  The  law  does  not  care  particularly  what  is  the  motive 
for  the  gift,  so  long  as  it  is  not  made  to  cover  up  the  commis- 
sion of  a  crime  or  to  avoid  the  payment  of  just  debts.  A  gift 
may  be  made  conditionally  —  that  is,  if  the  recipient  does  not 
perform  certain  required  acts,  the  property  comes  back  to  the 
former  owner. 

The  most  common  method  of  transferring  ownership  is  by 
sale.  In  this  case  something  else  of  value  must  be  given  in 
return.  As  soon  as  the  price  is  paid  or  other  definite  arrange- 
ments for  the  transfer  are  completed,  the  property  passes 
from  the  control  of  the  seller  to  that  of  the  buyer. 

When  the  title  to  real  property  is  transferred,  a  paper  is 
drawn  up  which  is  called  a  deed.  This  states  the  fact  of  the 
transfer,  mentions  the  money  or  "  other  valuable  considera- 
tion "  involved,  describes  the  property  which  is  transferred, 
and  is  signed  by  all  parties  who  are  directly  concerned. 
Deeds,  wills,  and  any  such  papers  of  importance  are  filed 
with  the  proper  public  official,  so  that  they  may  be  on  record 
for  later  times. 

One  can  of  course  transfer  no  more  than  he  possesses.  If 
his  title  to  a  piece  of  property  is  complete  he  may  give  a 
warranty  deed,  but  if  he  is  only  part  owner  he  can  give  only  a 
quitclaim  deed,  which  gives  up  whatever  title  the  seller  actu- 
ally possessed. 

Where  would  you  go  in  your  community  to  find  out  about  the 
ownership  or  valuation  of  a  piece  of  land  in  which  you  were 
interested? 

The  Torrens  land  title  system,  under  which  the  government  de- 
termines and  guarantees  the  title  to  land  within  its  jurisdiction, 


286      Some  Important  Commercial  Terms 


is  in  vogue  in  some  places, 
occur  to  you? 


What  arguments,  for  or  against  it, 


184.  Mortgages.  —  Even  when  the  title  is  transferred,  the 
new  owner  may  not  own  the  property  in  full.  If  the  buyer 
is  not  able  to  pay  the  entire  purchase  price,  or  does  not  care 
to  do  so,  the  former  owner  may  retain  a  claim  on  a  part  of  the 
property,  expecting  the  remainder  of  the  payment  to  be  made 


County  Recorder's  Office,  Santa  Ana,  California. 

Not  many  public  offices  are  so   attractively  decorated,  but  the  general 

arrangement  of  this  one  is  typical. 

later,  with  interest.  Such  a  claim  is  known  as  a  mortgage. 
If  the  amount  due  is  paid  when  it  should  be,  the  mortgage  is 
cancelled.  If  it  is  not  paid,  the  holder  of  the  mortgage  may 
"  foreclose.' '  That  is,  he  may  cause  the  property  to  be  sold 
and  keep  enough  from  the  proceeds  to  satisfy  his  claim. 

Frequently  property  owners  who  wish  to  get  ready 
money  for  some  purpose  will  give  a  mortgage  on  their 
property  as  security  for  the  repayment  of  the  amount  which 
they  borrow.    Many  sales  of  real  or  personal  property  are 


Contracts  287 

made  on  the  installment  plan.  The  buyers  pay  part  of  the 
price  every  week  or  month  or  quarter,  for  example,  and  do 
not  become  full  owners  until  the  whole  cost  is  paid. 

See  if  you  can  learn  the  difference  between  a  "  first  mortgage  " 
and  a  "  second  mortgage."  Who  are  "  loan  sharks  "  ?  Should  they 
be  permitted  to  do  business? 

185.  Contracts. — A  contract  is  a  definite  agreement  be- 
tween two  or  more  persons  to  do  or  not  to  do  some 
particular  thing.  The  term  is  applied  to  many  different 
transactions.  Hardly  anything  is  done  in  the  business 
world  that  is  not  connected  with  the  making  or  carrying 
out  of  a  contract,  express  or  implied.  Deeds  and  mort- 
gages are  contracts.  When  a  person  is  engaged  to  work  for 
another  an  implied  contract  to  pay  him  is  understood.  A 
postal  money  order  is  an  implied  contract  to  pay  the 
amount  mentioned.  Without  the  power  of  making  con- 
tracts and  the  assurance  that  contracts  would  be  kept, 
modern  business  would  be  impossible. 

So  important  is  the  certainty  that  a  contract  will  be  exe- 
cuted that  the  national  Constitution  specifically  forbids  the 
states  to  pass  any  law  "  impairing  the  obligation  of  a  con- 
tract." The  Supreme  Court  has  interpreted  this  word  very 
broadly,  too.  In  the  famous  Dartmouth  College  case  it 
declared  that  the  charter  of  a  college  is  a  contract.  In  the 
case  of  Fletcher  vs.  Peck  it  declared  that  land  grants  by  a 
state  legislature  are  contracts. 

A  contract  cannot  be  enforced,  however,  if  either  of  the 
parties  is  not  legally  entitled  to  make  a  contract.  A  person 
under  twenty-one  is  considered  by  the  law  asa"  minor  "  or 
"  infant,"  and  cannot  lawfully  make  a  contract,  except  for 
the  necessaries  of  life. 

Bankruptcy  laws  perhaps  come  the  nearest  of  any  laws  to 
"  impairing  the  obligation  of  a  contract."  A  bankrupt  is  a 
person  who  has  been  legally  declared  unable  to  pay  his 
debts.  The  national  Constitution  gives  Congress  the  power 
to  pass  uniform  bankruptcy  laws,  but  that  power  was  not  in 


£88      Some  Important  Commercial  Terms 

use  except  for  two  brief  periods  until  the  present  law  was 
passed  in  1898.  Meanwhile  each  state  made  its  own  laws 
to  cover  the  matter. 

A  person  who  wishes  to  take  advantage  of  the  bankruptcy 
law  must  turn  over  all  his  property,  with  some  few  exemp- 
tions, and  allow  it  to  be  applied  to  the  payment  of  as  large  a 
part  of  his  debts  as  it  will  meet.  Then  he  will  be  allowed 
to  start  business  anew. 

An  honest  man  will  feel  bound  to  pay  his  old  debts  in  full 
as  soon  as  he  is  able  to  do  so.  Men  have  been  known  to 
abuse  the  privilege  by  going  into  bankruptcy  when  it  was  not 
necessary,  and  have  even  made  money  by  doing  so.  But  the 
object  of  the  law  is  simply  to  give  a  new  start  to  a  person  who 
has  been  unfortunate  in  business  and  is  so  hopelessly  tied  up 
that  a  new  deal  will  be  welcome  to  his  creditors  as  well  as 
himself. 

QUESTIONS 

Explain  the  two  kinds  of  property.  Define  bonds,  stocks,  com- 
mon stock,  preferred  stock.  By  what  means  may  property  be 
acquired  ?  How  is  property  disposed  of  at  the  death  of  the  owner  ? 
What  is  a  deed  f  What  two  kinds  of  deeds  are  there  ?  What  reasons 
move  people  to  give  mortgages  on  their  property?  Do  you  think 
a  mortgage  is  a  good  form  of  investment  for  the  one  who  holds  it  ? 
•  What  is  a  contract?  What  does  the  national  Constitution  say 
about  contracts?  Can  you  make  a  contract?  Define  bankruptcy. 
Is  any  moral  principle  involved  in  taking  advantage  of  bankruptcy 
laws? 

SPECIAL  TOPICS 

The  Legal  Standing  of  a  Person  under  Age  in  regard  to  Property 
and  Contracts. 

Resolved,  that  a  first  mortgage  in  real  estate  is  the  safest  kind 
of  investment. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

HOW  OUB  GOVEBNMENTS  GET  MONEY 


The  subjects  of  every  state  ought  to  contribute  to  the  support  of  the 
government  as  nearly  as  possible  in  proportion  to  their  several 
abilities.  —Smith. 

186.  What  is  a  Good  Tax  ?  —  One  of  the  easiest  ways  to 
make  an  American  protest  is  to  levy  a  new  tax.  In  Revolu- 
tionary days  our  ancestors  acquired  the  habit  of  objecting  to 
taxes  and  this  habit  seems  to  have  stayed  with  us,  whether 
the  taxation  is  with  or  without  representation.  Yet  in  a  sense 
this  is  not  surprising.  The  right  to  have  private  property  is 
one  of  the  fundamental  rights  of  an  American  citizen.  A  tax 
is  nothing  else  than  taking  a  part  of  one's  private  property  and 
using  it  for  public  purposes. 

But  the  government  does  not  take  it  without  giving  some- 
thing in  return.  Even  when  it  exercises  the  legal  right  known 
as  eminent  domain,  the  "  condemned  "  property  must  be  paid 
for  at  a  price  which  is  considered  by  a  jury  or  board  of  viewers 
to  be  fair  and  reasonable.  So  it  is  with  taxes.  The  govern- 
ment gives  protection  to  every  person's  life  and  possessions. 
It  is  only  fair  that  those  who  are  protected  should  give  some- 
thing to  the  state  in  return. 

What  should  be  the  principle  on  which  taxes  are  levied? 
At  first  thought  we  might  say,  "  In  accordance  with  the 
benefits  received  from  the  government."  But  when  you 
come  to  think  of  it,  a  great  many  people  with  almost  no 
property  at  all  receive  countless  benefits  from  the  state. 
While  this  principle  should  not  be  disregarded,  it  is  evident 
that  it  will  not  meet  the  needs  of  the  state.    Regularly,  then^ 

289 


290       How  Our  Governments  Get  Money 

a  person's  ability  to  pay  is  made  the  basis  of  consideration. 
The  person  with  large  wealth  will  not  miss  the  comparatively 
small  sum  taken  as  taxes.  Besides,  the  more  property  he  has, 
the  more  the  government  must  protect. 

Certain  other  conditions  every  taxpayer,  rich  or  poor,  has  a 
right  to  ask.  The  money  received  should  be  used  for  the 
benefit  of  all,  not  for  a  favored  few.  No  distinction  should 
be  made  between  individuals,  but  all  persons  or  property  in 
the  same  class  or  condition  should  be  taxed  alike.  The  tax 
should  be  levied  in  a  public  way  and  the  time  and  manner 
of  assessing  and  collecting  it  should  be  known  to  everybody. 
It  should  be  easy  to  collect  and  should  cause  no  unnecessary 
inconvenience  in  payment. 

If  taxes  are  based  on  these  principles,  a  citizen  is  indeed 
unpatriotic  who  tries  to  avoid  paying  his  fair  share  to  support 
the  government  which  does  so  much  for  him  and  which  can- 
not be  maintained  without  his  help  and  his  money. 

Can  you  judge  the  progressiveness  and  sound  management  of  a 
community  by  the  amount  of  its  tax  rate  ? 

187.  Tax  Definitions.  —  We  commonly  divide  all  taxes 
into  two  great  groups  —  direct  and  indirect.  Direct  taxes 
are  those  whose  burden  is  intended  to  be  borne  by  the  person 
from  whom  they  are  collected  and  not  to  be  shifted  to  some 
one  else.  Taxes  on  buildings,  land,  incomes,  inheritances, 
and  the  like,  are  direct.  Most  of  the  taxes  levied  by  city, 
town,  or  county  governments  are  of  this  kind. 

Indirect  taxes  are  those  whose  burden  is  likely  to  be  borne 
by  other  persons  than  those  from  whom  the  government 
collects  them.  A  tax  on  imported  goods,  for  example,  is 
really  paid  by  the  person  who  uses  them,  for  the  importer 
adds  the  tax  to  the  price  he  charges  for  them,  and  it  does  not 
come  out  of  his  pocket.  The  taxes  levied  by  the  national 
government  are  largely  indirect.  This  kind  of  tax  is  usually 
more  popular  than  the  other,  for  people  pay  it  without  know- 
ing it. 


The  Cost  of  Government  291 

After  all,  it  is  the  community  as  a  whole  that  pays  every 
tax.  High  taxes  mean  high  rents,  high  prices  for  goods,  and 
other  expedients  for  getting  the  money  out  of  the  public. 
Our  main  problem,  therefore,  is  to  invent  a  tax  system  which 
shall  make  every  one  pay  his  fair  share.  The  exact  form  of 
the  tax  is  not  so  important. 

When  a  tax  is  collected  on  a  fixed  percentage  basis,  regard- 
less of  the  total  value  of  the  property,  it  is  called  a  'propor- 
tional tax.  If  the  percentage  rate  increases  in  accordance 
with  the  value  of  the  property,  it  is  a  progressive  or  grad- 
uated tax.  Those  who  lay  great  stress  on  the  idea  that  a  tax 
should  be  in  proportion  to  one's  ability  to  pay  believe 
strongly  in  the  progressive  tax. 

Excises  are  taxes  on  goods  produced  or  sold  within  a 
country.  They  are  often  called  internal  revenue.  The 
taxes  on  manufacturers  or  dealers  in  liquor  and  tobacco  are 
examples  of  these.  Customs,  duties,  or  imposts,  as  we  use 
the  terms,  are  taxes  on  goods  brought  into  the  country. 
These  are  of  two  forms :  specific  duties,  which  lay  a  definite 
amount  per  unit  of  goods,  as  10  cents  per  yard,  dozen,  or 
pound;  and  ad  valorem,  which  collect  a  percentage  of  the 
value  of  the  goods.  In  one  way  the  latter  are  fairer,  but  the 
former  are  easier  to  collect  and  cheating  is  not  so  easy  when 
they  are  used. 

188.  The  Cost  of  Government.  —  Three  great  services 
which  governments  perform,  and  which  justify  the  collec- 
tion of  taxes,  may  be  called  protective,  industrial,  and  social. 
Their  protective  functions  include  the  defense  of  the  nation 
against  foreign  enemies,  and  the  suppression  of  disorder  and 
the  safeguarding  of  life  and  property  within  their  borders. 
The  first  of  these  must  be  done  almost  wholly  by  the  na- 
tional government ;  the  other  is  distributed  among  national, 
state,  and  local  governments. 

Industrial  functions  include  the  encouragement  of  industry 
and  the  promotion  of  proper  conditions  in  its  operation ;  the 
construction  of  roads,  canals,  bridges,  and  the  improvement 


£92      How  Our  Governments  Get  Money 

of  rivers  and  harbors ;  and  the  supervision  of  the  relations 
of  industrial  workers  to  each  other.  Since  the  Constitution 
gives  the  national  government  entire  control  of  interstate 
and  foreign  commerce,  a  considerable  part  of  these  functions 
must  be  performed  by  the  national  government,  but  a  very- 
great  deal  remains  for  the  states,  as  well  as  much  for  cities 
and  counties. 

The  social  functions  relate  to  the  relief  and  improvement  of 
the  people.     The  care  of  the  poor,  the  sick,  the  insane,  and 


An  Arch  Bridge  under  Construction. 


the  unfortunate,  the  prevention  of  poverty  and  disease,  the 
education  of  all  the  people,  the  maintenance  of  libraries  and 
museums,  and  the  promotion  of  learning  in  any  form,  are 
embraced  within  this  group.  Comparatively  little  of  this 
can  be  done  by  the  national  government  as  our  Constitution 
now  stands.  The  great  bulk  of  it  rests  upon  the  local  com- 
munities, with  more  or  less  assistance  from  the  states. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  of  all  the  money  spent  for  the 
administration  of  government  in  the  United  States  the 
national  government  spends  a  little  over  one  third,  the  state 


National  Finances  293 

governments  about  one  tenth,  and  the  various  local  govern- 
ments the  rest  —  nearly  three  fifths.  The  fact  that  the 
debt  of  New  York  City  alone  was  in  1916  greater  than  that 
of  the  national  government  may  bring  out  the  extent  to  which 
the  expense  of  administration  of  affairs  rests  upon  the  cities. 

189.  Government  Revenues.  —  To  meet  these  expenses 
three  general  sources  of  income  may  be  drawn  upon. 

(1)  Sale  and  gift.  The  sale  of  public  lands  has  been  a 
source  of  more  revenue  than  it  is  ever  likely  to  be  again. 
The  income  from  public  industries  like  the  post  office  and 
water  works  might  help  a  little,  but  these  seldom  make  much 
profit.  Gifts  from  public-spirited  citizens  are  made  occa- 
sionally, but  it  is  clear  that  neither  this  nor  the  other  sources 
of  revenue  mentioned  in  this  group  can  be  depended  upon 
very  extensively. 

(2)  Taxes.  Taxes  of  one  form  or  another  must  always 
be  the  main  source  of  income.  Other  forced  payments  by 
citizens  are  fees  for  licenses  and  other  special  services,  special 
assessments  for  special  work,  and  fines  for  violations  of  law. 
These  are  of  course  variable  in  amount,  but  they  can  be 
estimated  to  some  extent. 

(3)  Loans.  Borrowing  money  is  an  expedient  for  any 
except  a  hopelessly  bankrupt  government.  It  is  too  often 
a  refuge  from  incompetent  and  dishonest  management  of 
government,  and  a  cowardly  shifting  to  others  of  burdens 
which  ought  to  be  met  at  once.  The  payment  of  interest 
over  a  long  period  of  years  will  much  more  than  eat  up  the 
original  cost,  and  such  a  method  is  justified  only  when  a 
sudden  emergency  has  arisen  or  when  an  improvement  is 
undertaken  which  will  be  of  positive  benefit  to  the  people 
for  years  to  come.  Every  national  government  in  the  world 
has  a  debt,  as  have  also  most  of  the  states  and  cities  of  the 
United  States. 

190.  National  Finances.  —  Our  national  government  be- 
fore we  entered  the  Great  War  was  spending  over  one  billion 
dollars  a  year.    What  a  staggering  figure  that  would  have 


294      How  Our  Governments  Get  Money 

seemed  to  the  people  of  Alexander  Hamilton's  day,  who 
recognized  that  he  rendered  a  tremendous  public  service  in 
arranging  for  the  settlement  of  a  public  debt  of  $54,000,000 ! 
Over  $300,000,000  is  spent  by  the  post  office  department, 
which  for  the  last  few  years  has  a  little  more  than  paid  for 
itself.  Nearly  $160,000,000  goes  for  pensions.  Considerably 
over  $200,000,000  goes  to  meet  the  salaries  of  officers,  the 
construction  of  public  works  and  buildings,  and  other  costs  of 
administration.  The  care  of  the  Indians  and  the  interest 
on  the  debt  take  somewhat  less  than  $25,000,000  apiece. 

The  rest  goes  for  military  and  naval  expenses.  The  sad- 
dening lesson  of  the  Great  War  has  convinced  thoughtful 
people  of  the  folly  of  supposing  that  armies  and  navies  pre- 
vent war.  They  are  an  awful  burden,  and  can  be  excused 
only  on  the  ground  of  sheer  necessity.  Yet  until  all  nations 
will  stop  this  thing,  no  single  nation  will  feel  safe  to  do  it. 

Explain  the  term  "  pork  barrel "  in  connection  with  governmental 
expenditures.  The  figures  given  above  were  for  the  year  before  we 
entered  the  Great  War.  Compare  them  with  any  later  figures  you 
can  obtain. 

Until  the  Civil  War  the  leading  source  of  revenue  was  the 
income  from  duties  on  imports,  but  during  that  war  a  very 
extensive  internal  revenue  system  was  established  which  has 
been  abandoned  only  in  part.  It  is  now  by  far  the  greatest 
source  of  revenue.  Manufacturers  and  dealers  in  liquors, 
tobacco,  cigarettes,  oleomargarine  and  renovated  butter, 
and  other  commodities,  have  to  contribute  to  this  revenue. 

Taxes  on  the  income  of  corporations  and  of  indidivuals  are 
another  source  of  revenue.  The  acts  of  1916  and  later 
years  provided  a  considerable  number  of  special  taxes  and  a 
new  system  of  taxes  on  inheritances.  Duties  on  imports 
bring  in  a  considerable  portion  of  the  revenue,  though  not  so 
large  a' part  as  formerly.  The  demands  of  the  war  caused 
the  enactment  of  an  extensive  series  of  new  taxes,  many  of 
which  were  of  a  temporary  character  and  were  meant  to  be 


National  Finances 


295 


abandoned  when  the  emergency  which  required  them  had 
passed. 


Copyright,  Keystone  View  Co. 

U.  S.  S.  Missouri  in  the  Panama  Canal. 
This  was  the  first  large  vessel  to  pass  through  the  canal. 

No  extensive  borrowing  was  done  for  years  except  for  the 
expenses  of  the  Spanish  War  and  the  construction  of  the 


296       How  Our  Governments  Get  Money 

Panama  Canal.  But  our  activities  in  connection  with  the 
European  War  caused  an  enormous  increase  in  our  expenses. 
To  meet  these  and  to  make  loans  to  our  allies,  "  Liberty- 
Bonds  "  to  the  amount  of  over  $16,000,000,000  were  sold  to 
our  own  people,  besides  an  additional  "  Victory  Loan  "  of 
$4,500,000,000  after  the  fighting  was  over. 

Do  these  sources  of  revenue  reach  all  the  states  in  equal  propor- 
tion? 

191.  State  and  Local  Finance. — We  have  stated  (§  188)  the 
principal  objects  of  expense  for  state  and  local  governments. 
To  meet  these  expenses  the  main  resource  has  been  the 
general  property  tax.  The  attempt  has  been  made  to  reach 
all  kinds  of  property,  real  and  personal,  without  distinguish- 
ing the  uses  to  which  it  is  put  or  the  income  derived  from  it. 

This  does  not  always  work  fairly.  The  rate  of  assessment 
may  not  be  the  same  between  one  community  and  the  next, 
so  that  if  a  state  or  county  tax  is  collected  which  is  based  on 
the  estimate  of  property  value  made  by  local  assessors,  one 
community  may  have  to  pay  more  than  its  just  share. 

Then,  too,  it  is  difficult  to  get  hold  of  a  large  part  of  the 
personal  property.  The  assessor  may  guess  with  some  ac- 
curacy what  a  man's  house  is  worth,  but  in  the  attic  of  the 
same  house  or  in  a  safe  may  be  stored  thousands  of  dollars' 
worth  of  valuable  stocks  and  bonds  which  the  assessor  may 
never  know  anything  about  unless  the  man  himself  tells  of 
them.  So  a  premium  is  put  on  dishonesty  and  the  honest 
man  pays  more  than  his  share. 

The  general  property  tax  is  supplemented  by  fees  for  li- 
censes of  various  kinds,  franchises,  and  the  like,  and  to  a 
small  extent  by  fines  and  penalties.  Many  states  have 
inheritance  taxes  and  corporation  taxes,  and  a  few  have 
income  taxes  and  taxes  on  mortgages  or  money  otherwise  out 
at  interest.  Several  still  collect  a  poll  tax,  which  amounts 
to  one,  two,  or  three  dollars  for  each  person,  regardless  of 
property.  In  some  states  there  is  a  small  income  from  public 
land. 


Assessment  and  Collection  of  Local  Taxes     £97 

Why  is  an  inheritance  tax  considered  a  just  tax?  Should  the 
rate  of  tax  be  greater  on  big  inheritances  ?  Is  there  anything  wrong 
with  a  poll  tax? 

Cities  must  depend  on  licenses,  fines,  and  the  general  prop- 
erty tax  for  most  of  their  income.  When  a  special  piece  of 
improvement  work  is  done,  like  laying  out  a  new  street,  it  is 
the  custom  in  most  cities  to  make  a  special  assessment  against 
the  property  owners  who  will  be  directly  benefited,  thus  mak- 
ing them  pay  at  least  a  part  of  the  cost. 


Main  Street,  Moose  Jaw,  Saskatchewan. 
Notice  the  street  lamps,  as  well  as  the  general  plan  of  the  street. 

When  a  city  operates  its  water  system  or  fighting  plant, 
a  separate  charge  is  usually  made  to  the  owner  or  occupant  of 
a  building,  but  as  the  intention  usually  is  to  run  these  plants 
at  about  cost,  it  will  not  affect  materially  the  rest  of  the 
community's  expenses  for  government. 

192.  The  Assessment  and  Collection  of  Local  Taxes.  — 
As  long  as  the  general  property  tax  is  used  as  a  means  of 
revenue,  a  record  must  be  made  by  the  government  of  the 
value  of  the  property  which  it  can  tax.  Such  an  assessment 
is  made  every  year  in  some  states,  less  often  in  others,  by 


298      How  Our  Governments  Get  Money 

assessors  connected  with  the  local  government.  While  in 
theory  all  property  should  be  assessed  at  its  real  value,  in 
practice  it  often  is  not.  In  some  communities  the  figure  is 
deliberately  put  as  low  as  one  third  of  the  probable  value. 

Do  you  see  any  reason  for  this  practice  ?  If  you  think  your  prop- 
erty is  not  fairly  assessed,  what  can  you  do  about  it  ? 

If  there  is  no  limit  on  the  tax  rate,  the  amount  of  the  assess- 
ment makes  little  difference,  for  the  rate  can  be  high  enough 
to  offset  the  low  valuation.  Whatever  the  custom  may  be, 
an  honest,  intelligent  assessor  is  a  prime  necessity  to  a  fair 
and  just  system  of  taxation. 

By  some  means  the  authorities  estimate  how  much  money 
will  be  needed  from  the  general  property  tax.  By  adding  up 
the  total  taxable  valuation  of  the  community,  and  dividing 
the  amount  needed  by  the  total  valuation,  a  decimal  is 
obtained  which  is  the  rate  for  all  individual  taxes.  If  the 
property  valuation  of  a  township  is  $10,000,000,  and  the 
amount  to  be  raised  from  the  property  tax  is  $120,000, 
the  quotient  is  .012.  As  it  is  commonly  expressed,  the  rate 
in  that  community  would  be  12  mills  on  the  dollar.  A  person 
whose  property  was  valued  at  $5000  would  then  have  to  pay 
$60  in  taxes  to  that  community. 

School  taxes,  county  taxes,  and  state  taxes  are  often  levied 
by  different  bodies  of  men,  and  the  rate  of  taxation  will  vary. 
But  for  convenience  the  school  and  other  local  taxes  are 
usually  paid  to  the  same  official,  and  state  taxes  are  fre- 
quently collected  through  the  county. 

In  many  cases  a  discount  is  allowed  if  the  tax  is  paid  before  a 
certain  date,  and  a  penalty  added  if  not  paid  by  a  certain  later 
date.  If  taxes  are  not  paid  on  property  within  a  reasonable 
time,  the  authorities  have  the  right  to  order  it  sold  at  public 
sale.  Whatever  remains  after  the  taxes  and  costs  of  the 
sale  are  taken  out  is  given  back  to  the  former  owner. 

193.  Budget  Making.  —  In  most  of  the  states  of  the 
United  States,  in  many  of  the  cities,  and  in  the  national 


Budget  Making  299 

government,  budget  making  is  an  unknown  art.  A  budget  is 
simply  a  carefully  calculated  summary  of  the  probable  ex- 
penses of  a  government  or  other  organization  for  a  year  or  a 
season,  with  a  similar  estimate  of  means  to  provide  revenues 
to  meet  these  expenses.  Most  European  governments  have 
a  special  officer  in  their  cabinets  who  is  expected  to  do  this 
work.  In  the  English  cabinet  he  is  called  the  Chancellor  of 
the  Exchequer. 

In  the  United  States  there  is  no  such  person.  The  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury  sometimes  offers  suggestions  along  this 
line,  and  the  President  recommends  certain  forms  or  rates  of 
taxation,  but  Congress  does  exactly  as  it  pleases  with  these 
suggestions.  If  the  revenues  and  expenditures  for  a  year 
happen  to  come  out  within  a  few  million  dollars  of  being 
even,  it  is  because  of  some  happy  accident  rather  than  of 
any  intelligent  plan.  Appropriations  are  made  without  any 
reference  to  the  money  in  the  treasury,  and  appropriations 
and  revenue  bills  are  not  even  referred  to  the  same  committees. 

Things  are  done  the  same  way  in  most  of  the  states. 
What  wonder  that  we  are  in  debt  far  beyond  anything  we 
have  to  show  for  it,  and  that  we  get  less  for  what  we  spend 
than  any  other  enlightened  nation ! 

What  ought  to  be  done,  and  is  done  in  some  cities  and 
states,  is  about  as  follows :  Each  officer  who  will  have  charge 
of  the  spending  of  money  should  make  as  definite  an  estimate 
as  he  can  of  the  probable  financial  needs  of  his  department 
for  the  next  year.  All  such  estimates  should  be  presented 
either  to  one  official  or  a  special  budget  committee  of  three. 
The  estimates  should  then  be  combined  and  an  inquiry  made 
to  determine  whether  the  revenue  usually  obtained  will  meet 
the  demands.  If  it  will  not,  the  estimates  should  be  pared 
down  to  meet  the  probable  revenue  or  else  new  sources  of 
revenue  suggested.  Frequently  an  adjustment  in  both  direc- 
tions would  be  the  sensible  thing. 

Then  the  budget  official  or  committee  should  lay  the  plan 
before  the  body  that  has  legal  power  to  levy  taxes  —  council, 


300      How  Our  Governments  Get  Money 

legislature,  or  Congress  —  with  the  right  to  defend  the 
plans  proposed.  It  would  not  be  safe  to  permit  taxes 
to  be  levied  by  the  budget  committee  alone,  but  the  argu- 
ment that  would  follow  the  submission  of  the  budget  would 
clear  up  the  whole  matter  and  show  the  soundness  or  folly 
of  any  propositions  that  were  advanced.1 

Here  is  the  budget  of  a  large  city  for  the  year  1915 : 

Expenses 

Public  safety,  fire,  police,  etc $2,570,000 

Sanitation 895,000 

Highways 943,000 

General  administration 868,000 

Water 836,000 

Street  lights 523,000 

Charities 376,000 

Libraries 243,000 

Parks,  etc 498,000 

Sinking  funds,  etc 1,516,000 

Health  conservation 340,000 

Interest 1,962,000 

Miscellaneous ! _      345,000 

Total $11,915,000 

Receipts 

Taxes $7,822,000 

Water  rents 2,692,000 

Liquor  licenses 687,000 

Rents  and  sales 273,000 

Fines,   permits,  interest  on  bank  balances, 

fees,  etc 1,003,000 

Total $12,477,000 

Notice  that  the  interest  charges  amount  to  a  large  figure.  Do 
you  think  this  indicates  good  business  management  or  not  ?  Some 
say  that  a  city  needs  the  liquor  license  revenue  to  make  both  ends 
meet.  Do  you  think  it  is  so  in  this  case?  Would  you  judge  this 
city's  budget  to  be  intelligently  planned  and  administered? 

194.  Proposed  Tax  Reforms.  —  It  is  much  easier  to  find 
fault  than  to  correct  the  fault.     With  all  the  talk  about  the 

1  A  budget  system  based  on  these  principles  nas  at  last  (1920)  been  seri- 
ously considered  by  Congress  and  will  doubtless  be  enacted  soon. 


Proposed  Tax  Reforms  301 

iniquities  of  the  general  property  tax,  no  one  has  yet  brought 
forward  a  substitute  which  does  not  have  faults  of  its  own, 
as  well  as  some  of  those  of  the  property  tax. 

Take,  as  an  instance  of  the  proposed  reforms,  the  so-called 
single  tax.  The  foremost  advocate  of  the  idea  in  the  United 
States  was  Henry  George,  who  wrote  a  book  called  "  Progress 
and  Poverty,"  in  which  he  urged  that  his  plan  would  almost 
bring  about  the  millennium.  He  proposed  that  nothing 
whatever  should  be  taxed  except  the  value  of  land.  Land, 
he  said,  is  the  gift  of  nature,  and  when  individuals  occupy  this 
land  for  their  own  use,  they  should  pay  the  state  for  it  but 
should  not  be  taxed  for  the  buildings  and  other  improvements 
which  their  own  energy  and  labor  brought  into  existence. 

The  gobbling  up  of  land  in  cities  by  a  few  speculators  who 
intended  to  hold  it  until  it  became  more  valuable  was  in  his 
opinion  responsible  for  the  crowding  of  people  in  the  slums 
and  the  resulting  disease,  crime,  and  poverty.  If  unoccupied 
land  were  taxed  so  that  it  would  no  longer  be  profitable  to 
hold  it  idle,  it  would  be  built  upon,  the  pressure  on  the 
crowded  districts  would  be  relieved,  and  everything  would 
move  on  to  happiness. 

Several  new  Canadian  towns  have  adopted  the  plan  and 
have  prospered  during  its  operation,  but  whether  the  pros- 
perity is  .due  to  their  newness  or  to  the  single  tax  is  not  clear. 
Many  converts  have  been  made  to  Henry  George's  doctrine 
and  there  is  a  pretty  general  feeling  that  land  values  have, 
to  say  the  least,  not  contributed  their  share  of  taxes. 

But  the  question  rises  whether  it  is  fair  that  the  owners  of 
land  which  costs  nothing  to  protect  should  bear  much  of  the 
burden  of  taxation,  while  the  buildings  which  demand  so 
many  expenses  for  fire  protection  and  other  purposes  should 
go  wholly  free.  Moreover  it  is  not  proved  to  the  satisfac- 
tion of  all  that  the  filling  up  of  all  unoccupied  land  with 
buildings  would  be  a  great  improvement,  or  that  the  happi- 
ness and  morality  of  any  large  number  of  people  would  be 
promoted  by  doing  so. 


302      How  Our  Governments  Get  Money 

If  a  plan  could  be  satisfactorily  worked  out  by  which 
national,  state,  and  local  governments  could  draw  upon  dif- 
ferent sources  of  revenue,  instead  of  overlapping,  as  they 
sometimes  do,  doubtless  we  should  find  an  improvement. 
Inheritance  taxes  and  franchises,  and  no  doubt  other  subjects 
of  taxation,  can  without  injustice  be  made  to  contribute  much 
more  than  they  do.  After  all,  while  many  individuals  pay 
less  than  they  ought  to,  very  few  pay  more  than  they  get  in 
the  way  of  benefits.  The  honest  expenditure  of  the  revenues 
is  a  far  more  vital  problem  than  the  occasional  unfairness  of 
present  revenue  systems. 

195.  The  Protective  Tariff.  —  Getting  revenue  is  not  the 
only  thing  that  can  be  done  with  taxes.  They  can  be  so 
arranged  that  industries  can  be  encouraged  or  ruined,  or  that 
certain  goods  can  be  excluded  entirely.  To  put  a  tax  of  $10 
a  pound  on  imported  butter  would  be  the  most  certain  way 
of  keeping  foreign  butter  out  of  the  country.  If  a  tax  on 
imported  butter  were  five  cents  a  pound,  however,  the  result 
would  probably  be  to  reduce  considerably  the  amount  of 
butter  imported  and  to  permit  butter  makers  in  this  country 
to  charge  four  or  five  cents  a  pound  more  than  they  could 
otherwise  get.  Butter  makers  would  be  glad  of  that,  but 
how  about  the  rest  of  the  people  ? 

•  Here  is  the  kernel  of  the  whole  argument  between  a  pro- 
tective tariff  and  a  revenue  tariff  —  is  it  better  for  the  people 
as  a  whole  that  Americans  should  be  able  to  make  everything 
they  need  and  that,  in  order  to  do  that,  manufacturers  should 
be  enabled  to  charge  prices  higher  than  we  could  get  the  same 
thing  for  elsewhere?  Or  should  this  artificial  encouragement 
of  home  manufacturers  be  removed,  with  a  probable  detri- 
ment to  some  industries  and  a  reduction  in  prices  due  to  the 
lower  cost  of  foreign-made  goods  ? 

If  we  believe  that  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  protective  tariff 
high  enough  to  enable  us  to  produce  everything  we  need,  it 
does  not  follow  that  we  must  try  to  justify  every  protective 
tariff  law  that  we  have  had.    At  last  both  the  great  political 


Questions  303 

parties  seem  to  have  reached  the  conclusion  that  the  tariff 
should  not  be  a  political  question,  but  that  it  is  an  economic 
problem.  A  Federal  Tariff  Commission  of  six  members  has 
been  established,  with  the  power  to  recommend  desirable 
changes  in  the  rates,  so  that  they  can  be  altered  by  Con- 
gress without  passing  an  entirely  new  tariff  bill  and  upsetting 
business  generally. 

QUESTIONS 

What  is  a  tax?  Has  a  citizen  a  right  to  try  to  avoid  paying 
taxes  ?  Has  the  government  the  right  to  take  your  property  with- 
out paying  for  it  ?  On  what  principles  should  the  levying  of  taxes 
be  based  ? 

Explain  direct  and  indirect  taxes.  Explain  the  following  words 
used  in  connection  with  taxes  :  proportional,  progressive,  graduated, 
excise,  customs,  duties,  specific,  ad  valorem. 

What  great  functions  do  governments  perform  which  justify 
the  collection  of  taxes  ?  To  what  extent  do  national,  state,  and  local 
governments  perform  each  of  these  functions?  How  large  a  pro- 
portion of  the  whole  cost  of  government  in  normal  times  is  incurred 
by  each  of  these  agencies  ?  What  sources  of  income  are  drawn  upon 
to  meet  these  expenses?  Which  source  supplies  the  most  money? 
When  is  it  good  policy  for  a  government  to  borrow  money  ? 

Make  out  a  table  in  which  you  show  the  principal  items  of  ex- 
pense and  leading  sources  of  income  of  the  last  normal  year  for  which 
you  can  get  figures,  for  national  finances,  state,  county,  and  munici- 
pal. Use  the  figures  which  particularly  concern  you  in  the  last 
three  parts  of  the  table,  not  those  of  some  other  place. 

What  do  you  think  of  the  general  property  tax  ?  Can  you  sug- 
gest any  satisfactory  substitute?  What  is  meant  by  the  assess- 
ment of  property  ?  How  are  the  local  tax  rates  determined  in  your 
community  and  how  are  the  taxes  collected  ?  What  is  the  single  tax  ? 
How  do  Henry  George's  ideas  impress  you  ? 

What  is  a  budget?  Is  the  budget  system  in  use  in  your  state, 
county,  or  local  community?     If  not,  why  not? 

Explain  the  underlying  distinction  between  a  tariff  for  revenue 
and  a  protective  tariff  ?  Does  it  follow  that  because  a  certain  tariff 
policy  seems  to  work  well  in  one  country  that  it  would  be  equally 
good  for  all  ?  Would  it  be  an  improvement  if  the  tariff  were  wholly 
removed  from  politics  ?  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  Tariff  Commi&- 
sion?    Who  are  its  members? 


304      How  Our  Governments  Get  Money 


SPECIAL  TOPICS 

The  Cost  of  the  Great  War  and  How  It  is  to  be  Paid. 

The  "Pork  Barrel." 

What  I  would  do  if  the  United  States  or  my  State  made  me 
Chancellor  of  its  Exchequer. 

The  Time  and  Manner  of  Assessing  and  Collecting  our  Local 
Taxes. 

How  our  Governments  could  Save  Money. 

Resolved,  that  the  prosperity  of  the  United  States  depends  upoD 
the  permanent  retention  of  the  protective  tariff  idea. 


B.    Economic  and  Industrial  Problems 

CHAPTER  XXII 

LABOR  AND  INDUSTRY 


Labor  in  this  country  .  .  .  has  not  to  ask  the  patronage  of  capita^ 
but  capital  solicits  the  aid  of  labor.  —  Webster. 

But  the  obligations  are  not  all  on  the  side  of  capital.  Society  is  as 
little  ready  to  accept  an  oligarchy  of  labor  as  to  tolerate  longer  an 
oligarchy  of  capital.—  Haworth. 


196.  The  Factors  in  Production.  —  The  economist  says 
there  are  three  factors  or  agencies  that  help  in  producing 
the  things  that  we  use,  eat,  or  wear.  He  defines  them  as 
follows : 

(1)  Land  is  any  gift  of  nature  which  is  used  in  producing 
goods.  Water  which  is  Used  to  turn  mill-wheels  and  the  trees 
which  grow  in  the  forest  are  land,  in  this  sense.  A  longer 
expression  that  means  the  same  thing  is  natural  resources. 

(2)  Labor  is  any  activity  of  men  which  helps  in  the  pro- 
duction of  goods.  This  need  not  be  physical  labor.  The 
man  in  the  office  who  does  nothing  but  think  and  give  orders 
and  dictate  letters  is  just  as  much  a  laborer  as  the  man  who 
looks  after  the  furnaces  in  the  great  mills  or  the  girl  who 
watches  the  swiftly  moving  shuttle  in  the  factory. 

(3)  Capital  is  any  product  of  labor  that  is  used  for  produc- 
ing more  goods.  Iron  and  wood,  which  are  a  form  of  land, 
are  changed  by  the  labor  of  several  people  into  a  shovel. 
Then  if  the  shovel  is  used  to  throw  coal  into  a  furnace  or  to 
help  in  removing  the  ashes  from  a  mill  it  has  been  used  as  a 

305 


306 


Labor  and  Industry 


form  of  capital.  By  all  means  get  the  idea  that  a  great 
many  other  things  than  money  may  be  capital.  In  fact  a 
great  many  people  are  capitalists  without  knowing  it.  If 
the  "  white- wing  "  on  the  street  owns  the  broom  that  he 
uses,  that  broom  is  a  part  of  his  capital,  just  as  a  great 
factory-building  and  a  railroad  train  are  part  of  the  capital  of 
the  manufacturer  and  the  railroad  company. 

Which  of  the  three  is  most  important  ?     Land  is  necessary 
for  any  kind  of  economic  activity,  but  it  can  do  nothing  of 


Ohio  River  Barges. 

Carrying  coal,  sand,  and  gravel.    To  what  extent  do  you  discern,  in  the 
economic  sense,  the  use  of  land,  labor,  and  capital,  in  this  picture  ? 


itself.  Capital  is  necessary  in  every  industry.  See  whether 
any  of  you  can  name  a  modern  industry  which  does  not  use 
capital  to  some  extent.  Yet  it  cannot  exist  unless  some- 
body's labor  and  some  form  of  natural  resource  have  first  been 
brought  together.  And  labor  is  the  only  one  of  the  three 
factors,  in  the  sense  in  which  these  terms  are  here  used,  which 
possesses  intelligence.  It  can  lead  and  direct,  but  the  others 
must  wait  to  be  acted  upon. 

Labor,  then,  is  of  great  importance  and  must  be  as  care- 
fully cared  for  as  the  two  other  factors  of  production.    By 


Industrial  Accidents 


307 


all  means,  we  ought  to  make  special  effort  to  look  out  for  the 
men,  women,  and  children  who  furnish  the  labor  needed  to 
do  the  world's  work.  We  ought  to  save  them  from  unneces- 
sary danger  and  injury,  to  keep  them  in  good  health,  and  to 
avoid  wearing  them  out  by  toil  which  they  are  not  old 


Courtesy  of  National  Child  Labor  Committee 

Living  Conditions  among  Cannery  Workers  in  Maryland. 
Men,  women,  and  children  are  crowded  into  places  of  this  kind. 

or  strong  enough  to  perform  without  harm  to  body  and 
mind. 

197.  Industrial  Accidents.  —  The  old  common  law  of 
England  took  the  position  that  accidents  were  an  inevitable 
feature  of  industry  and  that  when  a  person  went  to  work 
in  any  industry  or  in  any  place  he  took  upon  himself  all  the 
risks  of  injury.  It  made  no  difference  whether  the  fault  was 
the  employer's,  the  worker's,  or  a  fellow-workman's,  it  was 


308  Labor  and  Industry 

a  part  of  the  risk  of  the  business  and  everybody  took  his  own 
chances. 

This  idea,  coupled  with  the  carelessness  that  seems  natural 
to  Americans,  has  made  our  record  of  accidents  extremely 
bad.  Some  one  has  figured  that  every  sixteen  seconds  some- 
body is  injured  in  the  factories,  mines,  or  railroad  business  of 
the  United  States.  In  these  three  kinds  of  work  there  are 
probably  more  unavoidable  accidents  than  in  any  others, 


Steel  Mills,  Pittsburgh. 
Many  accidents  occur  in  factories  of  this  kind. 

but  there  is  no  need  whatever  for  so  many  as  do  occur.     Such 
a  condition  is  intolerable. 

If  no  one  suffered  except  the  person  who  was  hurt,  the  evil 
would  be  bad  enough ;  for  he  may  lose  the  wages  he  would 
otherwise  have  earned,  and  may  never  be  able  to  do  as  good 
work  again.  But  suppose  an  injured  man  has  a  family. 
Then  they  too  may  have  to  suffer  from  lack  of  food,  clothing, 
or  care.  They  may  have  to  go  out  and  work  when  they  ought 
to  be  at  home  or  in  school  and  so  they  may  lose  the  proper 
training  for  life.  If  the  injury  or  illness  is  prolonged,  the  city 
or  state  or  a  charitable  society  may  have  to  help  them  and  the 
cost  of  doing  this  must  come  from  the  whole  people.  The 
injury  to  one  is  the  injury  of  all. 


Prevention  of  Accidents 


309 


How  frequently  do  accidents  occur  in  the  occupations  with  which 
the  members  of  your  family  are  connected?  How  many  of  them 
carry  insurance  against  accident  or  sickness? 

198.  Prevention  of  Accidents.  —  We  have  awakened  to  the 
situation  sufficiently  to  take  a  real  and  lively  interest  in 
"  safety  first  "  campaigns  of  all  kinds,  as  a  means  of  making 
people  careful  and  thereby  escaping  accidents.  We  expect 
the  traveler  on  the 
street  and  the  worker  in 
the  mill  to  watch  where 
they  are  going  and  what 
they  are  doing.  We 
expect  the  owner  of  a 
factory  to  keep  those 
parts  of  machines  cov- 
ered which  might  catch 
a  worker's  clothing  or 
some  part  of  his  body 
and  inflict  injury.  We 
think  the  manager  of 
the  factory  ought  to  see 
that  it  is  properly 
lighted  and  ventilated 
and  that  no  preventable  A  "  Safety  First"  Bulletin. 

conditions  exist  which  will  injure  the  health  of  his  workers. 
Mines  ought  to  be  safely  pillared  and  protected  so  that 
cave-ins  or  falling  rock  or  poisonous  gases  may  not  kill  or 
cripple  the  miner. 

Railroads  must  be  run  with  the  idea  of  getting  every  pas- 
senger to  his  destination  alive  and  well  rather  than  of  madly 
rushing  to  break  speed  records.  Losing  even  an  hour's 
time  is  far  better  than  not  getting  there  at  all.  Safety  brakes 
for  slowing  up  or  stopping  trains,  automatic  couplers  so  that 
men  do  not  have  to  go  between  cars,  and  steel  and  concrete 
coaches  which  cannot  be  easily  smashed,  are  among  the 
valuable  improvements  which  every  good  railroad  wants. 


BoDefins  Arc  Read  by  2^00,000  Workao  Eadi  Week 
NATIONAL  SAFETY  COUNCIL,  Chicago.  In. 

Practice  Safety 
Yourself 

OTHERS  WILL 
FOLLOW  YOU 


310 


Labor  and  Industry 


Not  only  does  public  sentiment  believe  in  these  things,  but 
laws  of  Congress  and  of  state  legislatures  are  enforcing  them 
when  mill,  mine,  or  railroad  managers  are  obstinate.  "  Full 
crew  "  laws,  which  require  a  certain  number  of  trainmen  for 
trains  of  a  certain  number  of  cars,  and  laws  limiting  the 
number  of  hours  when  a  trainman  may  be  kept  at  work,  so 
that  he  may  not  get  completely  exhausted  and  unfit  to  work, 

have  also  been  enacted 
by  many  states. 

Why  are  railroad  com- 
panies generally  opposed 
to  "full  crew"  laws? 


199.  Workmen's 
Compensation  Acts.  — 
But  it  does  not  seem 
likely  that  all  the  laws 
ever  made  would  pre- 
vent all  accidents,  even 
if  these  laws  were  en- 
forced.    To   deal   with 


Fan  for  Purifying  the  Air  in  a  Mine. 
This  can  make  250  revolutions  per  minute. 


injuries  which  occur  in  spite  of  our  efforts  to  prevent  them, 
most  people  have  come  to  believe  that  it  is  fairer  to  put  at 
least  part  of  the  burden  upon  the  whole  community  rather 
than  to  make  the  individual  worker  bear  it  all.  This  is  the 
principle  which  underlies  "  workmen's  compensation  "  acts 
and  "  employers'  liability  "  laws. 

When  a  workman  is  hurt  while  at  work  tKe  employer  may 
be  asked  to  pay  a  certain  percentage  of  wages  while  he  is 
forced  to  stay  at  home,  or  to  give  a  fixed  sum  if  the  injury  is  a 
permanent  one.  Under  other  systems,  the  employer  pays 
part  of  such  expenses  and  the  state  pays  part,  or  the  state 
may  maintain  an  insurance  fund  or  compel  employers  to 
insure  their  employees  in  private  insurance  companies. 

All  these  plans  work  out  in  about  the  same  way.  If  the 
employer  stands  the  expense,  he  charges  a  little  more  for  his 


Dangerous  Trades 


311 


product  and  the  public  makes  it  up.  If  the  state  pays  the 
cost,  taxes  will  be  a  little  higher.  But  the  worker  and  his 
family  who  have  suffered  are  relieved  from  serious  distress 
and  the  burden  upon  other  persons  is'  extremely  slight 
because  it  is  distributed  among  many. 


mm.  u    1 


Hiiiit 


ffcffMft 

iliiiiiiiiiiij 

IfltilHllllHM 


■  \ 


Charging  Board  for  Miners'  Lamps. 

In  the  best  managed  mines,  electricity  furnishes  the  only  light  permitted. 

Many  dangerous  gas  explosions  are  thus  averted. 

200.  Dangerous  Trades.  —  There  are  some  occupations 
which  seem  to  have  about  them  conditions  which  affect 
unfavorably  the  health  of  those  who  work  at  them.  This 
may  be  the  result  either  of  the  materials  they  have  to  use  or  of 
surroundings  in  which  the  work  must  be  carried  on. 

Painters  and  others  who  work  with  some  form  of  lead  often 
suffer  from  a  certain  kind  of  poisoning.     Workers  in  industries 


312  Labor  and  Industry 

where  arsenic  or  mercury  is  used,  or  where  the  filing  of  brass 
is  required,  suffer  from  impaired  health  that  seems  to  be 
caused  by  the  fine  particles  or  poisonous  fumes  that  are 
taken  into  the  lungs.  Until  recently  a  disease  called  "  phossy 
jaw  "  was  frequent  in  match  factories  which  made  use  of 
phosphorus. 

Probably  we  shall  learn  more  from  year  to  year  as  the  study 
of  these  diseases  continues.  The  discovery  of  a  different 
process  for  making  matches  made  it  feasible  for  Congress  to 
pass  an  act  which  has  virtually  ended  the  danger  from 
"  phossy  jaw."  In  other  cases  the  attempt  is  made  to  force 
the  workmen  to  wear  safety  appliances  of  some  kind  while 
they  are  at  work,  in  order  to  prevent  inhaling  dangerous 
substances.  An  extensive  force  of  inspectors  is  necessary 
to  enforce  these  and,  in  fact,  all  laws  regulating  labor  condi- 
tions. Both  employers  and  workmen  are  often  careless  and 
will  not  obey  laws,  even  for  their  own  good,  unless  they  are 
compelled  to  do  so. 

201.  Sweatshops.  —  The  "  sweatshop  "  is  a  place  where 
work  is  done  for  long  hours  and  low  wages  in  surroundings 
not  intended  to  be  used  for  industrial  purposes.  Ready- 
made  clothing,  artificial  flowers,  cheap  cigars  and  cigarettes 
are  among  the  commodities  most  often  made  in  such  places. 

Frequently  whole  families  are  engaged  in  the  work  that 
is  carried  on,  from  the  mother  down  to  the  three-year-old 
child.  They  are  paid  ridiculously  low  wages  by  a  contractor 
or  "  sweater,"  who  has  assumed  a  contract  with  a  large 
manufacturer  to  get  a  certain  amount  of  work  done.  Very 
often,  as  in  the  case  of  clothing,  only  a  part  of  the  work  is 
done  in  the  sweatshop,  such  as  sewing  finings,  putting  on 
buttons,  and  the  like.  A  whole  family  working  twelve  or 
fifteen  hours  a  day  may  not  get  more  than  fifty  or  sixty  cents 
for  their  labor. 

With  anywhere  from  three  to  fifteen  or  twenty  working 
in  the  same  room  —  quite  likely  the  same  room  where  a 
family  eats  and  sleeps  —  sanitary  conditions  are  anything 


Sweatshops 


313 


but  attractive.  Health  and  vitality  of  the  workers  suffer, 
disease  germs  flourish,  and  all  kinds  of  contagion  may  be 
spread  among  those  who  work  there  and  among  those,  per- 
haps a  thousand  miles  away,  who  wear  the  garments  sewed 
in  such  places. 

Sweatshops  exist  because  of  some  people's  greed  and  other 
people's  ignorance  and  poverty.     Most  of  this  kind  of  work 


Jr'*'^ 

/&''    fit 

Courtesy  of  National  ChM  Labor  Committee 

Home  Work  in  the  Garment  Industry. 


Often  many  workers  are  found  in  a  room  of  this  character, 
home  life  be  under  such  conditions? 


What  can  the 


is  done  by  foreigners.  Years  ago  it  was  chiefly  the  Irish, 
then  the  Germans,  then  the  Jews  of  various  nationalities, 
and  lately  the  Italians  are  getting  into  it.  They  live  in  the 
crowded  districts  of  large  cities  and  have  no  place  to  do  such 
work  outside  of  their  own  homes,  which  are  already  pitifully 
small. 

The  head  of  the  family  may  be  earning  only  small  wages 
and  the  rest  of  the  family  think  they  must  help  him  out. 


314  Labor  and  Industry 

Other  families  whose  chief  wage-earner  is  sick  or  dead  know 
no  other  means  of  getting  a  few  cents  a  day  to  keep  them- 
selves alive.  So  many  families  are  willing  to  do  this  work 
that  the  contractor  can  get  his  work  done  for  starvation 
figures. 

To  remedy  this  evil,  laws  have  been  passed  in  some  states 
forbidding  the  performance  of  certain  kinds  of  labor  except 
in  rooms  that  contain  so  many  cubic  feet  of  air-space  and  are 
otherwise  half-decent  places  to  work  in.  Like  all  laws  these 
must  be  enforced  in  order  to  be  of  any  use,  and  that  does 
not  always  occur.  The  payment  of  higher  wages  to  the  un- 
skilled workers  in  general  would  remove  some  of  the  excuses 
for  the  sweatshop  work. 

The  public  can  do  something,  too,  by  insisting  on  buying 
products  which  are  not  made  in  a  sweatshop.  The  Con- 
sumers1 League  is  a  private  organization  which  tries  to  educate 
the  public  to  the  seriousness  of  the  sweatshop  evil  and  to 
spread  information  that  will  enable  them  to  know  when  they 
are  getting  goods  made  in  proper  conditions.  The  Con- 
sumers' League  label  may  be  used  by  those  firms  which 
comply  with  the  laws  and  provide  suitable  sanitary  conditions 
in  places  where  their  goods  are  made. 

Have  you  any  reason  to  believe  that  the  garments  you  are  wear- 
ing were  not  made  in  a  sweatshop  ? 

202.  Child  Labor.  —  It  is  much  better  for  a  child  to  have 
something  to  do  than  to  be  allowed  to  "  loaf."  The  old- 
fashioned  home  of  moderate  means  gave  every  member  some 
little  part  in  the  daily  tasks,  with  opportunity,  too,  for  a 
reasonable  amount  of  play  outdoors,  when  school  hours  were 
over.  Hardly  any  better  place  than  this  could  be  imagined 
for  a  boy  or  girl  to  grow  up  healthy  and  happy.  But  such 
homes  are  growing  fewer  and  fewer  every  day.  Many 
homes  do  not  have  enough  for  the  children  to  do,  while  others 
because  of  poverty  or  other  causes  work  the  children  far 
beyond  their  years. 


Child  Labor 


315 


Not  until  great  factories  appeared  as  places  in  which  labor 
was  carried  on  did  the  evil  of  child  labor  as  we  know  it  become 
common.  This  industrial  period  began  in  England  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  in  the  United  States 
somewhat  later.  The  factory  owners  were  glad  to  get  all 
the  laborers  they  could,  and  worked  them  just  as  many  hours 
as  they  could. 


Courtesy  of  National  Child  Labor  Committee 

Shucking  Oysters. 

"Children,  eight  years  old,  working  steadily,  make  five  *  pots'  —  thirty 
cents  —  a  day." 


When  at  last  the  English  Parliament  learned  what  condi- 
tions prevailed  in  some  of  the  factories,  extensive  investiga- 
tions were  started.  It  was  discovered  that  children  even 
seven  or  eight  years  old  were  at  work  14,  15,  or  16  hours  a  day 
in  some  cases.  Speedy  action  followed,  and  laws  were 
passed  reducing  the  hours  and  raising  the  ages  within  which 
child  labor  was  permitted.  Very  mild  indeed  these  restric- 
tions would  seem  to-day,  but  they  were  a  step  in  the  right 


316  Labor  and  Industry 

direction,  and  they  have  been  extended  further  and  further 
as  time  has  passed. 

Since  human  nature'  does  not  differ  very  much  in  any  part 
of  the  world,  the  same  greed  of  factory  owners  caused  similar 
conditions  to  arise  in  the  mills  of  the  United  States.  New 
England  first  experienced  the  temptation,  and  Massachusetts 
was  the  first  state  to  pass  any  laws  limiting  child  labor. 
Workers  under  16  years  of  age  in  the  United  States  now 
number  2,000,000  or  more,  but  owing  to  an  aroused  public 
sentiment  on  this  subject  the  percentage  of  such  workers  to 
the  whole  population  has  begun  to  decrease. 

Mills,  mines  and  quarries,  canneries,  and  various  forms  of 
agricultural  work,  are  the  principal  fields  where  child  labor 
finds  a  place.  Southern  states  like  Mississippi  and  Alabama, 
where  cotton  mills  have  recently  been  built,  are  the  worst 
offenders,  but  Massachusetts,  where  the  evil  first  came  to 
light,  has  so  improved  conditions  that  it  shows  as  clean  a 
record  as  any  state. 

203.  Effects  of  Child  Labor.  —  The  ruinous  effects  of  child 
labor  are  many.  First  of  all,  a  child  who  is  forced  to  spend 
many  hours  a  day  even  in  a  well-managed  cotton  mill,  sitting 
or  standing  in  one  position  much  of  the  time,  is  likely  to  suffer 
a  stunting  of  the  body  and  dulling  of  mind  and  soul  which 
will  prevent  his  ever  becoming  as  strong,  healthy,  and  bright 
as  a  normal  man  or  woman  ought  to  be.  If  these  children 
when  they  grow  up  become  parents,  their  children  in  turn 
are  almost  certain  to  lack  the  physical  inheritance  and  moral 
guidance  which  it  is  desirable  for  every  child  to  receive. 

What  kind  of  intelligent  citizens  can  be  expected  to  come 
from  homes  where  sometimes  everybody  works  but  father, 
and  where  all  reach  home  at  night  tired  from  a  hard  day's 
work,  with  no  ambition  to  think  of  self-education  or  better- 
ment of  any  kind  ?  It  takes  the  noisy,  glaring,  grosser  kind 
of  amusement  to  make  any  appeal  to  their  hardened  souls, 
and  if  they  do  take  time  for  pleasure,  it  will  probably  be  the 
kind  that  leads  to  vice  and  crime.    Child  labor  and  education 


Effects  of  Child  Labor 


317 


are  positively  opposed  to  each  other,  for  it  is  next  to  impos- 
sible for  a  child  to  work  and  study  at  the  same  time.  If  he 
is  in  the  factory,  he  cannot  be  in  school. 

Child  labor  also  affects  disastrously  the  condition  of  all 
labor.  If  a  manufacturer  can  get  a  child  to  work  for  a  small 
wage,  he  will  not  want  to  pay  adults  much  more.  In  the  end 
this  comes  back  upon  the 


employers  themselves,  for 
ignorant,  incompetent 
laborers  cannot  do  the 
quality  of  work  that  can 
be  performed  by  intelli- 
gent workmen. 

It  has  often  happened 
that  manufacturers  have 
declared  that  they  would 
be  ruined  if  they  had  to 
give  up  child  labor,  but 
when  they  were  forced  by 
law  to  do  so,  they  have 
found  that  machinery 
could  do  better  the  work 
that  children  had  been 
doing.  So  they  have 
been  pleased  in  the  end 
that  they  were  forced  to 
change  their  methods. 

If  child  labor  is  so  bad, 
why  has  it  been  so  com- 
mon? We  have  just  mentioned  one  reason  —  the  short- 
sighted greed  of  employers  who  were  anxious  to  get  any 
labor  which  they  could  at  the  lowest  possible  wages.  Poverty 
in  famiHes  where  there  were  many  children  has  sometimes 
seemed  to  justify  the  children's  going  to  work  as  soon  as  a 
job  of  any  kind  was  offered.  Frequently,  however,  parents 
have  put  their  children  to  work  in  order  to  be  able  to  take 


i*Bin 


No  future  and  low  wages 


"Junk" 


SHALL  INDUSTRY  BE  ALLOWED  TO  PUT 
THIS  COST  ON  SOCIETY? 


Courtesy  of  National  Child  Labor  Committee 

What  Child  Labor  Does. 


318  Labor  and  Industry 

things  easy  themselves.     They  lie  about  their  children's  ages 
and  report  their  financial  condition  to  be  worse  than  it  is. 

Then  again,  when  boys  or  girls  get  along  toward  the  age 
of  twelve  or  thirteen  a  kind  of  restlessness  sometimes  appears. 
They  get  tired  of  school  and  think  they  want  to  do  something 
real.  If  their  parents  are  too  easy-going  or  lack  control,  they 
let  the  children  leave  school,  to  drift  into  some  poorly  paid 
jobs  and  perhaps  lose  all  chance  of  ever  getting  a  good  posi- 
tion in  life  either  industrially  or  socially. 

Read  some  account  of  child  labor  as  it  has  been  common  even  in 
recent  years  in  canning  factories  or  southern  cotton  mills. 

204.  Child  Labor  Laws.  —  All  of  the  states  now  have  some 
laws  concerning  the  employment  of  children,  but  not  more 
than  ten  or  a  dozen  have  really  effective  ones.  No  child 
under  16  should  be  allowed  to  be  regularly  employed  more 
than  8  hours  a  day  or  to  be  employed  at  night  at  all. 
Along  with  every  child  labor  law  should  go  a  law  for  com- 
pulsory attendance  at  school,  for  to  forbid  employment 
without  giving  a  child  anything  to  do  would  be  folly  of  the 
worst  kind.  There  are  some  industries  in  which  children 
ought  never  to  be  employed. 

To  back  up  the  states  which  have  good  laws  and  to  set 
an  example  to  the  rest  of  them,  Congress  passed  a  law  in  1916 
along  the  lines  we  have  indicated,  denying  the  right  of  trans- 
portation in  interstate  commerce  to  goods  produced  where  the 
terms  of  the  law  were  not  complied  with.  The  Supreme 
Court  later  ruled  by  a  5  to  4  vote,  that  this  law  was  uncon- 
stitutional, as  an  unwarranted  interference  with  a  state's  do- 
mestic affairs.  Congress  then  undertook  to  reach  the  same 
end  by  putting  a  high  tax  on  the  products  of  child  labor. 

Should  a  child  be  required  to  do  any  regular  work  while  attending 
school?     If  so,  how  much? 

205.  Women  Workers.  —  The  employment  of  women  in 
the  business  world  raises  problems  which  in  some  respects 
are  like  those  of  child  labor.     Certain  kinds  of  work  and 


Women  Workers  319 

unduly  long  hours  are  harder  on  them  than  on  men,  and  to  a 
still  greater  degree  may  affect  the  health  and  prosperity  of 
future  generations. 

The  employment  of  women  outside  the  home  is  also  due 
chiefly  to  the  development  of  the  factory  system.  The 
states  with  many  cotton  and  woolen  mills,  Massachusetts, 


Women  at  Work  under  Favorable  Conditions. 
The  H.  J.  Heinz  Factory. 

Rhode  Island,  South  Carolina,  Mississippi,  are  the  ones 
where  the  largest  proportion  of  women  are  employed.  A 
few  over  one  fifth  of  all  wage  earners  are  women,  and  a 
slightly  larger  proportion  of  women  over  ten  years  of  age  are 
employed.  The  total  number  of  employed  women  to-day 
approaches  10,000,000.  This  number  does  not,  of  course, 
include  those  who  are  engaged  in  purely  home  duties. 
One  phase  of  this  problem  which  appears  to  some  extent 


320  Labor  and  Industry 

in  child  labor  is  tha.t  of  competition  with  men.  Teaching  and 
keeping  boarders  were  once  the  only  genteel  occupations  open 
to  women,  and  some  people  were  not  sure  that  keeping 
boarders  would  classify  under  that  head.  To-day  four  fifths 
of  the  teachers  are  women,  and  they  are  found  in  more  than 
nine  tenths  of  the  occupations  recorded  in  the  census.  They 
have  shown  considerable  special  adaptability  as  stenographers 
and  clerks,  and  in  many  occupations  do  as  good  work  as  men. 

But  many  women  who  take  business  positions  expect  to 
get  married  sooner  or  later,  or  for  some  other  reason  do  not 
plan  to  continue  the  work  during  their  whole  lifetime.  Be- 
sides, there  are  some  occupations  which  they  cannot  easily 
fill,  and  for  this  and  other  reasons  their  movement  from  one 
position  to  a  better  one  is  not  so  easy  as  for  men. 

The  number  of  women  who  would  take  moderately  good 
positions  has  been  greater  than  the  number  of  positions  open 
to  them,  and  those  already  at  work  have  not  been  organized 
effectively  if  at  all.  The  result  of  all  this  is  that  the  pay  of 
women,  even  for  equal  work,  has  usually  been  considerably 
less  than  that  of  men.  The  average  wage  of  men  also  has 
naturally  been  reduced,  at  least  in  the  occupations  where 
women  are  employed. 

Should  men  and  women  get  the  same  pay  for  the  same  work  ? 

206.  Women's  Labor  Laws.  —  It  is  agreed  by  those  who 
have  studied  the  matter  that  a  woman  cannot  feed,  clothe, 
and  care  for  herself  properly  on  less  than  $7  to  $9  a  week, 
depending  on  the  local  conditions  under  which  the  work  is 
carried  on.  Very  many  girls  do  not  get  that  much.  The 
average  of  all,  indeed,  is  not  above  that  figure.  It  follows 
that  many  either  must  go  without  proper  food  or  clothing  or 
help  out  their  income  from  some  other  source  than  their 
regular  wages. 

To  protect  women  themselves  and  to  reduce  their  unfair 
competition  with  men  through  the  acceptance  of  excessively 
low  wages,  a  number  of  states  have  passed  minimum  wage 


Women's  Labor  Laws 


321 


laws  for  women.  Under  such  laws  a  commission  may  be  ap- 
pointed to  fix  the  lowest  wage  which  may  be  paid  to  women  in 
any  industry,  or  the  law  itself  may  mention  the  minimum 
amount. 

The  length  of  hours  for  employed  women  is  also  the  sub- 
ject of  law-making  in  many  states.  Employers  are  forbidden 
to  keep  them  at  work  more  than  54  hours  a  week,  for  example, 


Shoe  Factory,  Spencer,  Massachusetts. 
Many  women  and  girls  are  employed  here. 


or  even  48,  and  girls  under  18  may  not  be  employed  after  a 
fixed  hour  in  the  evening  or  engage  in  certain  occupations  at 
all.  The  Women's  Bureau  in  the  national  Department  of 
Labor  investigates  the  problems  of  women's  work. 

It  seems  certain  that  women  will  not  retire  from  the  busi- 
ness world  into  which  they  have  entered.  Many  of  them  are 
not  willing  and  probably  it  is  not  desirable  that  they  should 
keep  their  activities  within  the  walls  of  their  homes  as  they 
were  once  accustomed  to  do.  The  desire  of  many  women  to 
feel  that  they  do  not  live  on  men's  charity,  the  realization  by 


322  Labor  and  Industry 

others  that  they  can  do  at  least  some  things  as  well  as  men, 
and  the  plain  fact  with  some  that  they  must  work,  starve,  or 
go  to  the  poorhouse,  all  combine  to  take  them  into  the  busi- 
ness world  to  stay. 

207.  Unemployment.  —  A  nation  with  everybody  en- 
gaged in  work  suited  to  his  taste  would  probably  be  as  near 
perfect  as  can  be  expected.  No  nation  has  ever  reached  that 
stage,  but  we  have  at  least  discovered  how  undesirable  it  is 
to  have  many  men  out  of  work  at  any  time.  Idleness  leads 
to  drunkenness  or  even  crime.  A  man  loses  his  ambition 
and  even  his  ability  to  work  well  or  to  keep  at  it  for  a  long 
time.  His  family  may  have  to  suffer  from  lack  of  food  or 
clothing  and  may  themselves  get  into  permanent  bad  habits. 

Many  reasons  contribute  to  cause  such  unemployment. 
A  man  may  be  sick  or  injured,  some  one  else  may  get  his  job, 
and  when  he  gets  out  again  he  may  find  that  either  he  cannot 
do  the  work  any  longer  or  that  he  is  not  wanted.  Strikes 
and  other  difficulties  sometimes  cause  more  loss  in  time  and 
wages  than  can  be  made  up  in  a  long  time,  even  if  extra  pay  is 
secured. 

A  period  of  depression  in  business  such  as  prevailed  from 
1893  to  1897  throws  so  many  out  of  work  that  in  the  big 
cities  bread  lines  with  thousands  waiting  f or  a  "  hand-out  " 
become  a  regular  feature.  Then  some  trades  do  not  furnish 
steady  employment  the  year  round.  There  is  a  much 
greater  demand  for  coal  at  some  seasons  than  others.  Lum- 
bering can  be  most  easily  carried  on  at  certain  times  in  the 
year.  Cold  weather  makes  some  kinds  of  carpentry  and 
mason  work  difficult  or  impossible. 

How  does  the  extent  of  unemployment  in  your  community  or 
in  the  country  now  compare  with  other  times?   What  is  the  reason? 

208.  Remedies.  —  Whatever  the  cause,  the  effect  of  un- 
employment is  bad.  Not  only  the  workman  and  his  family, 
but  society  suffers  as  well.  He  produces  nothing  for  others 
to  enjoy  and  has  no  money  to  buy  what  others  produce. 


Labor  Unions  and  Their  Objects         323 

But  how  to  prevent  this  condition  is  not  always  clear.  The 
national  Department  of  Labor  and  many  of  the  states  con- 
duct employment  bureaus  which  try  to  keep  all  sections  of  the 
country  or  of  a  state  informed  of  the  needs  of  other  sections. 
It  often  happens  that  in  one  section  men  may  be  starving 
while  other  sections  are  clamoring  for  laborers. 

It  is  not  always  easy  to  get  men  to  go  where  the  work  is. 
They  want  to  live  in  the  city  rather  than  on  the  farm.  They 
do  not  want  to  leave  their  families  or  move  to  another  town. 
They  are  not  willing  to  work  for  less  than  a  certain  sum,  no 
matter  how  much  they  may  be  in  need.  For  such  people 
neither  society  nor  government  can  do  very  much,  and  for 
many  of  them  sympathy  is  wasted. 

Some  economists  urge  that  the  government  should  plan 
its  own  public  works,  such  as  street  construction,  laying  of 
sewers,  and  the  like,  so  that  it  will  call  for  the  most  helpers 
at  the  time  when  work  is  slack  in  other  occupations.  Others 
say  that  insurance  against  unemployment,  as  well  as  against 
sickness  or  accident,  should  be  provided  by  the  state.  Any- 
thing that  conduces  to  steadiness  of  work  and  income  on  the 
part  of  America's  millions  of  workers  will  help  a  little  toward 
general  happiness  and  prosperity. 

Find  out  who  are  the  I.  W.  W.     What  are  their  principles  ? 

209.  Labor  Unions  and  Their  Objects.  —  One  man  out  of  a 
thousand  employed  in  a  large  factory  can  have  little  influence 
upon  the  policy  of  his  employer  in  regard  to  wages  or  condi- 
tions of  labor,  unless  he  is  exceptionally  skillful  and  capable 
of  performing  some  special  service  essential  to  the  business. 
The  thousand  united  in  one  organization  can  exert  a  force 
that  the  factory-owner,  millionaire  though  he  might  be,  would 
hesitate  to  treat  with  contempt. 

Realizing  this  fact  the  workers  in  many  industries  have 
formed  themselves  into  unions,  and  in  countries  such  as 
England  have  acquired  a  power  greater  even  than  they  can 
now  exercise  here.     The  union  is  a  permanent  body  and  can 


324  Labor  and  Industry 

map  out  a  policy  to  follow  as  readily  as  the  employer,  and  if  its 
officers  are  intelligent  men,  it  can  plan  for  the  interests  of  its 
members  for  years  to  come. 

The  first  unions,  both  in  England  and  the  United  States, 
were  usually  limited  to  one  city  and  to  one  trade  in  the  city. 
Now  they  may  embrace  all  the  workers  in  a  certain  industry 
in  several  states,  as  the  United  Mine  Workers  of  America. 
Another  tendency  of  late  years  is  to  bring  many  different 
unions  into  one  great  federation,  on  the  same  principle  as  the 
United  States  itself  is  organized. 

The  best  type  of  this  movement  is  the  American  Federation 
of  Labor,  which  now  includes  110  national  unions  and  claims 
over  2,000,000  paid  members.  Its  president,  Samuel 
Gompers,  ranks  with  John  Mitchell,  who  for  many  years 
headed  the  United  Mine  Workers,  among  the  most  intelligent 
and  far-sighted  of  labor  leaders. 

The  main  objects  of  the  unions  are  to  secure  higher  wages, 
shorter  hours  of  labor,  and  better  working  conditions  for  their 
members.  As  a  side  issue,  unions  often  provide  a  fund  which 
may  be  drawn  upon  for  the  payment  of  benefits  in  accident 
or  sickness  or  when  members  are  out  on  a  strike,  and  they 
sometimes  make  direct  efforts  to  encourage  the  mental  im- 
provement of  their  members  and  the  conditions  of  life  out- 
side the  factory.  But  the  union  usually  emphasizes  the  idea 
that  the  improvement  of  home  conditions  can  come  only 
through  shorter  hours  to  give  the  worker  more  time  at  home 
and  through  more  pay  to  enjoy  his  greater  leisure. 

What  is  the  difference  between  "  wages  "  and  "  salary  "  ?  Labor 
speakers  sometimes  talk  about  "Wage  slaves."  What  do  they 
mean  ? 

210.  Union  Methods.  —  To  gain  the  ends  it  desires,  the 
union  is  likely  to  make  use  of  one  or  more  of  three  methods, 
which  under  favorable  conditions  may  be  powerfully  effec- 
tive. The  first  of  these  is  the  practice  of  collective  bargaining, 
which  involves  the  making  of  the  trade  agreement.      This 


Union  Methods 


325 


TAILORS 

NAT  SANGERS 

91£ 


LIBERTY  AVE 

1    SCAB    *UtT 


(38.  EGiQ  WML  USUI 


means  that  instead  of  letting  each  workman  make  whatever 
terms  he  can  with  his  employer,  the  officers  of  the  union 
carry  on  the  discussion  in  behalf  of  all  their  members.  If 
the  officers  and  the  employer  can  agree  on  terms,  they  sign 
an  agreement  which  binds  both  parties  for  a  period,  usually, 
of  one  to  three  years.  To  make  this  power  of  collective  bar- 
gaining effective,  the  unions  favor 
a  "  closed  shop  "  —  that  is,  an 
understanding  by  which  only 
members  of  the  union  will  be 
employed  in  that  establishment. 
The  employer  almost  invariably 
prefers  the  "  open  shop,"  where 
he.  is  free  to  hire  any  one  he 
pleases,  and  where  any  worker 
may  work  or  not  in  accordance 
with  his  own  individual  wishes. 
Some  very  bitter  controversies 
have  arisen  over  this  point,  for 
the  employer  feels  keenly  that  he, 
rather  than  the  officer  of  a  union, 
should  have  the  right  to  say  who 
shall  work  in  his  own  establish- 
ment. 

If  peaceful  terms  cannot  be  made,  the  next  step  of  the 
union  officials  may  be  to  order  a  strike.  When  this  is  de- 
clared, all  the  members  of  the  union  are  expected  to  refuse  to 
work  for  that  employer  until  he  grants  their  demands  or  until 
for  some  other  reason  their  officers  tell  them  to  return. 
Strikes  occur,  of  course,  in  places  where  the  men  are  not 
organized  into  unions,  but  they  are  less  frequent  and  less 
likely  to  be  successful.  Unions  which  have  no  grievance  of 
their  own  sometimes  declare  a  "  sympathetic  strike  "  in 
order  to  force  their  own  employer  to  urge  another  employer 
to  yield  to  the  wishes  of  strikers  in  the  latter's  factory. 

Still  another  scheme  is  the  boycott.    This  is  an  organized 


Poster  Put  Up  by  Striking 
Tailors. 

The  use  of  this  picture  is 
simply  for  illustration  and  im- 
plies nothing  as  to  the  justice 
of  the  dispute. 


3£6  Labor  and  Industry 

effort  to  induce  all  those  who  sympathize  with  the  strikers 
to  refuse  to  use  the  products  of  a  factory  where  a  strike  is 
going  on,  to  ride  on  the  cars  of  a  railway  company,  or  to  do 
anything  else  that  would  help  to  "  break  "  a  strike.  In 
carrying  out  a  policy  of  this  kind,  the  unions  often  publish 
an  "  unfair  list,"  as  they  call  it,  which  contains  the  names  of 
firms  or  individuals  who  have  refused  to  comply  with  demands 
made  on  them  by  labor  unions,  the  idea  being  that  friends 
of  the  unions  will  not  patronize  such  establishments.  Getting 
at  the  same  end  in  a  less  disagreeable  way,  the  union  may 
publish  a  "  white  list  "  of  firms  with  which  it  is  on  good  terms, 
and  it  furnishes  a  "  union  label,"  which  is  to  be  attached  to  all 
goods  from  shops  conducted  in  accordance  with  the  wishes  of 
the  union. 

Union  officials  are  generally  among  the  first  to  condemn 
the  destruction  of  property  which  sometimes  occurs  when 
an  extensive  strike  is  under  way.  No  doubt  such  occasions 
are  abused  by  the  rowdy  element  which  exists  in  almost 
every  large  community  and  which  seizes  its  opportunity  to 
do  violence.  At  such  times  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  tell 
how  much,  if  any,  of  the  disorder  is  due  to  the  strikers  them- 
selves. The  practice  of  "  picketing,"  or  stationing  men 
around  a  factory  to  prevent  others  from  going  there  to  work, 
often  leads  to  personal  encounters  and  sometimes  to  blood- 
shed. 

Employers  have  their  weapons  too  when  disputes  arise. 
They  may  close  their  doors  and  lock  out  their  employees 
until  the  latter  are  willing  to  return  to  work  or  make  more 
reasonable  demands.  They  may  establish  a  blacklist  on 
which  the  name  of  a  troublesome  workman  is  placed,  and 
when  that  workman  tries  to  get  a  job  with  another  employer 
he  finds  he  will  not  be  hired. 

Employers  often  call  upon  the  courts  to  issue  injunc- 
tions or  orders  commanding  union  officers  to  refrain  from 
some  action  which  the  employer  declares  will  endanger  his 
property.     Unions  have  always  violently  opposed  this  use 


Accomplishments  of  the  Unions  327 

of  the  injunction,  and  the  courts  do  not  seem  so  ready  to  use 
it  on  slight  pretexts  as  formerly. 

Employers  also  have  learned  the  lesson  of  cooperation,  and 
we  have  now  a  National  Association  of  Manufacturers  to 
offset  the  nation-wide  unions  of  laborers.  The  heads  of  the 
great  railways  work  in  harmony,  too,  in  dealing  with  the 
national  "  brotherhoods  "  which  their  employees  have  formed. 

Do  you  or  the  people  of  your  community  look  for  a  union  label 
when  you  buy  goods?     Should  you? 

211.  Accomplishments  of  the  Unions.  —  The  condition 
of  the  laboring  man  has  improved  tremendously  since  the 
unions  came  into  being.  How  much  of  the  credit  for  this 
improvement  is  due  to  the  unions  and  how  much  is  due  to 
a  humane  and  enlightened  public  sentiment  is  not  easy  to 
determine.  No  doubt  the  unions  accomplished  much  in 
arousing  public  opinion  as  well  as  in  working  directly  for 
the  objects  which  they  desired. 

But  since  the  unions  came  into  being,  the  standard  day's 
work  for  men  has  gone  down  from  twelve  to  eight  hours. 
A  dollar  a  day  was  once  pretty  fair  pay,  but  now  no  street 
sweeper  or  garbage  collector  would  think  of  working  for 
such  wages.  Factories  were  once  the  dirtiest  places  imag- 
inable, without  any  more  windows  than  necessary,  and 
with  absolutely  no  toilet  or  sanitary  conveniences  worth  the 
name.  Now  the  best  factories  are  almost  as  clean  as  a 
well-kept  house,  and  are  provided  with  well-equipped  rest- 
and  recreation-rooms.  The  laborer  no  longer  consents  to 
consider  his  labor  merely  a  thing  to  be  bought  and  sold 
like  hides  and  pig  iron,  and  has  succeeded  in  getting  Congress 
to  recognize  that  view  of  the  matter  in  its  laws. 

Indeed  the  whole  nation  felt  the  power  of  the  railroad 
brotherhoods  in  1916  when  the  President  of  the  United 
States  went  specially  before  Congress  to  induce  them  to  pass 
a  law  to  please  the  brotherhoods,  so  that  they  would  not 
go  on  a  threatened  strike.     Such  conditions  never  existed 


328  Labor  and  Industry 

before  and  may  never  exist  again,  but  the  fact  that  such  a 
thing  could  occur  even  once  shows  how  times  have  changed. 

212.  Conciliation  and  Arbitration.  —  The  general  public 
does  not  care  to  be  ruled  either  by  a  group  of  "  money  kings  " 
or  by  a  few  presidents  of  brotherhoods  or  unions.  It  favors 
justice  and  a  square  deal  to  all,  but  it  thinks  that  inasmuch 
as  both  laboring  man  and  employer  get  their  income  from 
the  public  both  ought  to  remember  the  whole  people  as 
well  as  themselves. 

But  what  happens  when  a  great  strike  or  lockout  takes 
place?  No  matter  how  much  the  people  depend  upon  a 
certain  few  individuals  for  their  coal  or  milk  or  transporta- 
tion, if  those  individuals  get  into  a  quarrel,  in  supreme  self- 
ishness they  put  their  own  demands  above  the  public's  need 
of  their  service.  Whole  families  may  freeze  for  lack  of  coal, 
babies  may  starve  because  there  is  no  milk,  the  farmer's 
grain  and  fruit  may  rot  for  want  of  means  to  get  it  to  market, 
and  all  because  one  set  of  men  cannot  agree  with  another 
set  about  the  number  of  cents  an  hour  which  shall  be  paid 
for  their  labor.  And  this  is  justice?  It  does  not  seem  so 
to  the  man  who  has  to  suffer  through  no  fault  of  his  own. 
The  Supreme  Court  in  its  ruling  on  the  "  Adamson  Act  " 
gave  the  opinion  that  Congress  is  justified  in  any  legislation 
necessary  to  keep  open  the  arteries  of  commerce  in  the  country. 

The  logical  thing  to  do  when  such  a  disagreement  occurs  is 
for  both  sides  to  refer  the  whole  matter  to  a  board  of  arbi- 
tration which  has  no  direct  interest  in  the  affair.  Let  this 
impartial  body  investigate  the  situation  and  report  its  find- 
ings, with  the  understanding  that  both  sides  shall  accept 
them.  But  since  one  or  both  parties  to  the  dispute  are  often 
obstinate,  several  states  have  established  boards  of  concilia- 
tion and  arbitration,  which  have  the  right  to  intervene  in  labor 
disputes  and  try  to  get  the  disputants  to  allow  their  quarrel 
to  be  settled  peacefully.  Sometimes  the  board  itself  may 
assist  in  making  the  settlement  if  it  is  requested  to  do  so 
by  the  interested  parties. 


Questions  329 

New  Zealand,  Australia,  and  Norway  have  adopted  a 
system  of  compulsory  arbitration  which  is  intended  to  pre- 
vent most  labor  difficulties  from  going  so  far  as  to  make 
the  public  suffer.  When  a  controversy  arises  between  a 
union  and  their  employers,  they  are  forbidden  to  undertake 
a  strike  or  lockout.  Instead,  a  special  board,  with  authority 
backed  by  the  government  itself,  may  be  called  on  to  in- 
vestigate the  controversy,  and  its  recommendations  must 
be  obeyed.  Public  sentiment  in  the  United  States,  which 
has  never  taken  very  kindly  to  compulsion  from  the  gov- 
ernment in  such  matters,  is  beginning  to  turn  toward  gov- 
ernment intervention  in  labor  disputes. 

If  we  do  not  care  to  adopt  the  principle  of  the  New  Zea- 
land plan,  we  can  follow  the  example  of  our  neighbor,  Canada. 
The  Canadian  law  is  like  that  of  New  Zealand  except  that 
the  government  does  not  enforce  the  awards  of  the  investi- 
gating board.  The  idea  is  that  the  board  will  inform  the 
public  what  it  believes  to  be  the  right  and  wrong  of  the 
controversy,  and  that  public  sentiment  will  be  strong  enough 
to  force  the  disputants  to  accept  the  opinion.  Labor  unions 
do  not  like  the  plan,  for  they  say  they  should  not  be  denied 
the  right  to  strike  as  a  last  resort.  But  if  an  impartial  in- 
vestigating board  can  be  obtained,  the  interests  of  unions, 
employers,  and  the  public  alike  would  be  protected. 

QUESTIONS 

Define  the  three  factors  in  production.  Compare  them  in 
importance.  Some  say  we  should  include  a  fourth  factor  —  man- 
agement.    Do  you  agree  with  them? 

What  was  the  "fellow  servant"  doctrine  of  old  English  common 
law?  Why  do  we  not  adhere  to  that  principle  any  longer?  What 
is  the  record  of  the  United  States  in  the  matter  of  industrial  acci- 
dents? Illustrate  what  is  meant  by  the  "safety  first"  movement. 
Have  you  any  personal  responsibility  along  that  line?  Why  do 
we  have  "workmen's  compensation"  acts?    What  is  their  nature? 

Give  examples  of  dangerous  trades.  What  can  be  done  to  im- 
prove conditions  in  them? 


330  Labor  and  Industry 

What  is  a  sweatshop ?  Who  engage  in  this  kind  of  work?  Why 
do  they  go  into  it  ?     Can  its  evils  be  eradicated  ? 

Should  children  have  some  definite,  regular  work  to  do  ?     Can  you 
fix  the  point  at  which  work  becomes  a  harm  to  a  child  ?     When  and  A 
where  did  the  evils  of  child  labor  become  serious  ?     How  far  reach-  1 
ing  is  it  to-day  in  this  country  ?     Why  has  it  existed  ?     Summarize 
its  disastrous  effects.     What  has  been  done  to  make  conditions 
better  ?     Can  you  suggest  any  further  improvements  ? 

In  what  occupations  outside  the  home  does  there  seem  to  be 
the  most  room  for  women?  What  problems  arise  in  connection 
with  such  employment  of  women?  What  is  its  effect  upon  the 
standard  of  wages?  What  are  "minimum  wage"  laws?  Why 
are  they  urged  ?  What  are  the  usual  terms  of  women's  labor  laws  ? 
Are  we  likely  to  have  more  or  less  of  women's  labor  in  the  future 
outside  the  home?  Discuss  the  bad  effects  of  unemployment. 
Why  does  it  occur?     To  what  extent  do  you  think  it  can  be  avoided  ? 

Why  are  labor  unions  formed?  Relate  some  facts  about  their 
growth  and  present  importance.  Define  collective  bargaining, 
trade  agreement,  closed  shop,  open  shop,  strike,  sympathetic  strike, 
boycott,  unfair  list,  union  label,  scab,  picketing.  Relate  any  instances 
of  their  use  with  which  you  are  familiar.  What  methods  do  em- 
ployers use  to  combat  the  activities  of  the  unions? 

How  have  labor  conditions  improved  since  labor  unions  existed? 
How  far  do  you  think  this  is  due  to  the  unions  ? 

Show  how  the  innocent  public  often  has  to  suffer  during  a  strike. 
Is  this  justifiable?  How  do  boards  of  conciliation  and  arbitration 
commonly  work  in  this  country  ?  What  are  the  underlying  features 
of  the  Canadian  and  New  Zealand  laws  for  compulsory  investi- 
gation and  arbitration? 

SPECIAL   TOPICS 

Accidents  in  Mines  and  on  Railroads. 

The  Safety  First  Movement. 

Child  Labor  in  the  South. 

Child  Labor  and  Women's  Labor  Laws  of  Our  State. 

The  Work  of  Employment  Agencies. 

The  American  Federation  of  Labor. 

John  Mitchell  and  Samuel  Gompers. 

Resolved,  that  labor  unions  have  done  more  good  than  harm  in 
this  country. 

Resolved,  that  the  United  States  government  should  institute  a 
system  of  compulsory  arbitration  of  labor  disputes. 

The  Story  of  the  Adamson  Bill. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

BUSINESS   OBGANIZATION 


Property  has  its  duties  as  well  as  its  rights.— Drummond. 


213.  Capital  and  Its  Importance.  —  We  have  already 
defined  capital  as  that  product  of  past  industry  which  is 
used  in  further  production.  We  have  pointed  out  that  no 
industry  in  existence  to-day  can  get  along  without  using 
capital  in  some  form.  When  men  lived  in  caves  and  an 
animal's  hide  constituted  a  man's  full-dress  suit,  capital  did 
not  exist  in  great  quantities ;  but  even  then  the  club  which 
the  man  used  in  killing  a  bear  for  food  or  clothing  was  the 
product  of  past  industry  used  in  further  production,  and 
was  therefore  a  crude  kind  of  capital.  As  time  goes  on  and 
civilization  advances,  capital  steadily  plays  a  more  im- 
portant part  in  industry. 

But  what  things  constitute  capital  ?  We  cannot  include 
under  this  head  such  eminently  desirable  personal  qualities 
as  character,  talent,  and  health ;  for  though  they  are  of  im- 
mense importance  to  every  one,  they  cannot  conveniently  be 
measured  and  expressed  in  definite  terms.  Only  the  material 
things  produced  by  industry  which  are  embraced  under  the 
general  term  wealth  can  be  so  reckoned. 

But  only  that  part  of  wealth  is  capital  which  is  actually 
used  to  produce  something  more.  A  man  may  have  a  suffi- 
cient supply  of  silk  stockings  so  that  he  may  put  on  a  new 
pair  every  day,  but  if  his  wealth  is  not  used  to  more  effective 
purposes  than  that,  not  much  of  it  is  capital.    Railroads, 

331 


332 


Business  Organization 


telegraph  and  telephone  lines,  machines,  tools,  and  factory 
buildings,  are  all  forms  of  wealth  that  are  used  to  produce 
more  wealth.     Therefore  they  are  capital. 

Money  may  or  may  not  be  capital,  depending  on  the  way 
it  is  used.  If  it  is  hidden  away  in  an  old  shoe,  it  is  no  more 
capital  than  the  shoe,  but  if  it  is  used  to  make  change  or 


The  Largest  Factory  of  Its  Kind  in  the  World. 
Pickles  and  preserves. 

to  pay  a  man's  wages,  it  is  used  to  assist  in  producing  more 
wealth  and  is  capital. 

A  distinction  is  often  made  between  "  capital "  and 
"  capital  goods."  Capital  is  an  abstract  word  which  suggests 
the  industrial  value  of  certain  forms  of  wealth.  Capital  goods 
are  the  actual  things  used  in  production.  Railway  cars,  boilers, 
looms,  furnaces,  are  capital  goods.  They  may  wear  out  and 
have  to  be  replaced  by  others,  but  while  they  are  in  use  they 
represent  capital  in  the  conduct  of  industry. 

Try  to  find  the  money  value  of  the  various  forms  of  capital  em- 
ployed in  some  particular  business.    How  much  would  the  profits 


Forms  of  Business  Organization  333 


of  that  business  have  to  be  in  order  to  pay  6%  interest  on  the  invest- 
ment? 

214.  Forms  of  Business  Organization.  —  Business  suc- 
cess depends  in  very  large  measure  upon  capable  manage- 
ment. As  the  volume  of  busi- 
ness grows,  the  more  necessary- 
it  becomes  to  provide  efficient 
organizers  and  to  assign  to  each 
worker  a  definite  piece  of  work 
to  perform,  so  that  each  may 
do  what  he  can  do  best. 

The  simplest  form  of  business 
management  is  that  in  which  one 
man  assumes  the  entire  respon- 
sibility for  the  operation  of  an 
enterprise.  The  profit  or  loss 
is  wholly  his,  unless  he  chooses 
to  divide  them  with  his  em- 
ployees. This  plan  makes  it 
possible  for  the  business  to  be 
carried  on  in  a  uniform  way  and 
with  a  definite  policy,  for  a  man 
is  not  supposed  to  disagree  with 
himself.  But  when  a  business 
becomes  large,  one  man  finds 
trouble  in  attending  to  every- 
thing. Since  no  single  English 
word  exactly  suits  the  purpose,  we  sometimes  use  the  French 
term  entrepreneur  for  this  kind  of  management. 

To  obtain  the  benefit  of  more  than  one  mind  and  to  share 
responsibility,  two  or  three  or  even  more  persons  may  join  in 
a  partnership.  Each  member  contributes  something  to 
the  conduct  of  the  business,  and  each  shares  in  the  profit 
or  loss  in  proportion  to  the  part  he  is  supposed  to  have  con- 
tributed. Money  investment  is  only  one  way  to  contribute 
to  a  partnership.    Experience,  time  spent  at  the  work,  or 


Office  Building. 

Birmingham,  Alabama.  The 
tallest  building  south  of  the 
Ohio. 


334  Business  Organization 

special  responsibility  might  be  counted  as  equivalent  to 
money.  The  possible  lack  of  harmony  among  the  members 
and  the  necessity  of  reorganization  if  one  partner  dies  are 
the  principal  disadvantages  of  this  method. 

The  most  common  way  to  carry  on  extensive  business 
to-day  is  to  organize  a  corporation.  Every  state  has  laws 
about  organizing  corporations,  but  some  states  are  much 
less  strict  than  others.  New  Jersey  was  once  the  joke  of 
the  country  because  of  the  ease  with  which  a  charter  for  a 
corporation  could  be  secured  there.  Its  requirements  have 
now  been  made  much  more  severe,  but  many  of  the  best- 
known  corporations  and  trusts  in  the  land  are  still  oper- 
ating under  charters  which  they  obtained  in  the  days  of 
New  Jersey's  generosity. 

The  charter  of  the  corporation  mentions  the  kind  of  bus- 
iness which  it  may  engage  in  and  the  amount  of  stock  which 
it  may  issue.  The  stock  is  sold  in  shares  which  are  most 
often  valued  at  $100  each,  and  the  profits  are  divided  among 
the  stockholders  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  stock  which 
they  hold.  If  the  stockholders  are  numerous,  they  elect  a 
board  of  directors,  with  a  president,  vice  president,  and 
other  officers,  and  these  officers  actually  manage  the  business 
of  the  corporation. 

The  corporation  has  all  the  privileges  and  powers  before 
the  law  that  any  individual  possesses,  and  some  besides. 
The  money  of  hundreds  or  even  thousands  of  people  can  be 
invested  in  the  business  through  the  sale  of  stock,  and  so 
it  can  be  conducted  on  a  wide  scale.  The  death  of  one 
officer  or  stockholder  need  not  affect  the  business.  Another 
can  take  his  place,  and  like  Tennyson's  "  Brook,"  "  men 
may  come  and  men  may  go,  but "  the  corporation  goes  on 
forever. 

Make  a  diagram  that  will  show  the  organization  of  a  great  busi- 
ness, indicating  the  relation  of  its  different  parts  and  officials  to 
each  other.  Perhaps  you  can  secure  printed  reports  published  fol 
the  benefit  of  stockholders  or  the  public. 


The  Trust  335 

215.  The  Trust.  —  The  success  of  the  corporation  as  a 
form  of  business  management  led  to  the  idea  of  still  fur- 
ther combinations.  About  forty  years  ago  a  plan  was  in- 
vented by  which  several  corporations  engaged  in  similar 
business  would  all  turn  over  their  stock  to  a  committee  of 
"  trustees,"  who  were  to  direct  the  policies  of  all  the  cor- 
porations which  they  represented. 

Such  a  combination  was  called  a  trust.  Its  object  was  to 
control  as  much  as  possible  of  the  production  of  some  com- 
modity, so  that  it  could  regulate  prices  and  buy  and  sell  to 
the  best  advantage.  The  Standard  Oil  Company  was  the 
first  great  trust. 

Another  plan  of  combination  was  to  organize  a  new  com- 
pany, called  a  "  holding  company,"  which  was  to  have  stock 
of  its  own,  but  was  to  do  nothing  else  whatever  than  to  own 
stock  in  several  companies  of  the  same  kind,  so  that  they 
could  be  directed  virtually  as  one. 

In  the  people's  mind,  almost  any  corporation  that  does 
business  on  a  big  scale  is  looked  upon  as  a  trust,  but  bigness 
alone  does  not  make  a  trust.  Many  of  the  trusts  that  were 
organized  were  too  ambitious  or  were  badly  managed  and 
did  not  prove  to  be  money-makers.  There  is  a  very  general 
feeling  that  business  combinations  such  as  this  are  dan- 
gerous, but  it  is  hard  to  prevent  their  existence.  Much  of 
their  business  can  be  done  in  such  a  way  that  the  govern- 
ment would  find  it  hard  to  prove  that  they  did  anything  wrong. 
Besides,  if  they  are  proved  guilty,  it  is  hard  to  inflict  punish- 
ment. You  cannot  put  a  corporation  in  jail,  and  moderate 
fines  are  hardly  felt.  The  imprisonment  of  trust  officials 
who  disregard  the  law  seems  to  be  about  the  best  way  to 
handle  the  situation. 

With  what  forms  of  business  organization  are  the  members  of 
your  family  connected?  Would  their  business  be  benefited  by 
being  organized  on  the  "  trust  "  idea? 

Is  it  possible  for  a  big  business  organization  to  control  the  activi- 
ties of  smaller  ones  without  actually  operating  them? 


336  Business  Organization 

216.  Relations  of  the  Workers.  —  Industrial  progress 
has  changed  the  relations  of  the  ordinary  workmen  to  each 
other  just  as  much  as  it  has  affected  the  management  of 
capital.  There  was  a  time  when  everybody  had  to  be  a 
jack-of-all-trades  if  he  expected  to  be  able  to  hold  his  own 
against  other  men.  But  it  was  soon  discovered  that  every 
one  would  be  better  off  if  the  man  who  liked  to  raise  sheep, 
for  example,  should  give  his  whole  time  to  that,  while  the 
man  who  could  build  boats  well  should  follow  that  occupa- 
tion. Thus  division  of  occupations  came  about.  The 
next  step  was  division  of  labor  within  an  occupation.  In- 
stead of  one  man's  trying  to  do  all  the  work  necessary  in 
putting  a  boat  together,  one  might  make  the  sails  and  an- 
other the  ropes,  while  still  others  constructed  the  hull. 

But  to-day  we  have  gone  far  beyond  that  division,  and 
now  most  workers  specialize  on  some  small  part  of  a  pro- 
cess. One  person  who  is  helping  to  make  shoes,  for  instance, 
may  do  nothing  else  than  run  a  machine  which  puts  in  the 
eyelets  for  the  laces  to  run  through.  By  this  specialization 
the  time  needed  to  make  almost  any  common  article  of  trade 
is  wonderfully  reduced,  and  the  work  will  probably  be  done 
very  much  better,  for  every  one  is  supposed  to  be  working 
at  the  particular  little  process  which  he  can  do  most  easily 
or  which  he  likes  best. 

The  only  serious  danger  in  this  minute  specialization  is 
that  a  workman  will  become  narrow  and  will  find  it  hard 
to  adjust  himself  to  something  else  if  any  new  machine  should 
be  invented,  or  if  by  some  other  change  he  lost  his  chance 
to  do  the  one  particular  little  thing  with  which  he  had  be- 
come specially  familiar. 

Trace  the  changes  in  methods  of  conducting  some  activity,  as 
house-building  or  making  clothes. 

There  is  a  great  difference,  of  course,  in  the  capacity  of 
different  laborers.  Some  do  only  those  things  which  re- 
quire little  more  than  physical  strength  or  quickness  of 


Relations  of  the  Workers 


337 


movement,  like  the  ditch-digger  or  the  girl  who  pastes  labels 
on  boxes  or  bottles.  These  workers  we  call  unskilled,  for 
no  particular  training  is  required. 

Then  there  are  those  who  need  some  little  preparation  or 
practice  before  they  can  work  well,  like  a  street  car  motor- 
man  or  conductor,  or  a  press  feeder  in  a  printing  office,  but 


Specialization  in  Industry. 

How  much  specialization  would  you  judge  to  be  in  effect  in  the  pictures 

on  pages  43  and  393  ? 


whose  occupation  does  not  require  a  high  grade  of  intelli- 
gence or  long  experience.     These  we  call  semi-skilled. 

Going  beyond  them  we  come  to  the  skilled  laborer.  He 
must  have  a  considerable  period  of  training  and  must  have 
brains  enough  so  that  he  can  adapt  his  work  to  the  needs 
of  any  particular  job.  Such  must  be  the  carpenter,  the 
plumber,  and  the  printer.  The  unskilled  laborer  must  be 
content  with  small  wages.     He  cannot  expect  more  than 


338  Business  Organization 

$4  or  $5  a  day,  while  the  skilled  worker  may  receive  as  high 
as  $10,  or  even  more. 

217.  Monopolies.  —  In  the  operations  of  a  trust  the  fea- 
ture which  we  fear  most  is  the  trust's  effort  to  get  into  its 
own  hands  the  control  of  all  or  at  least  of  a  very  large  part 
of  the  production  of  some  commodity  —  in  short,  to  estab- 
lish a  monopoly.  Along  with  such  a  control  goes  the  power 
of  fixing  the  price  and  regulating  the  quantity  that  is  pro- 
duced. There  is  always  the  temptation  to  use  the  power  of 
a  monopoly  without  much  regard  for  the  interests  of  the 
public. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  monopolies.  (1)  We  have 
government  monopolies,  such  as  the  post  office  in  the  United 
States  and  other  countries,  the  railroads  in  Prussia,  New 
Zealand,  and  elsewhere,  and  the  sale  of  salt  in  Italy.  Pri- 
vate citizens  are  not  allowed  to  engage  in  these  enterprises 
at  all  in  the  countries  mentioned. 

(2)  Private  legal  monopolies  are  granted  by  governments 
in  the  form  of  patents  or  copyrights,  or  franchises,  good  for 
a  limited  time.  We  think  it  is  only  fair  that  a  person  should 
get  some  reward  for  the  product  of  his  intelligence  or  public 
service,  but  we  do  not  favor  his  keeping  an  endless  owner- 
ship of  it. 

(3)  Monopolies  of  situation  are  the  result  of  controlling 
the  only  location  where  the  business  can  be  carried  on.  A 
railroad  company  may  occupy  a  river  valley  or  mountain 
pass  which  furnishes  a  route  so  much  superior  to  any  other 
that  competition  in  that  section  of  country  is  almost  out 
of  the  question. 

(4)  Monopolies  of  organization  are  those  which  are 
gained  by  bringing  together  into  a  trust  or  union  all  or  most 
of  those  who  are  engaged  in  a  certain  business  or  employ- 
ment. That  is  the  object  for.  which  trusts  are  formed. 
Labor  unions  wish  to  gain  exactly  the  same  control  over 
the  workers  in  an  industry. 

(5)  A  less  dangerous  kind  of  monopoly  is  known  as  per- 


Monopoly  Prices 


339 


sonal.  That  occurs  when  an  individual  is  the  only  one  of 
his  kind  in  a  neighborhood,  so  that  people  must  accept  his 
services  or  go  without.  The  doctor,  the  printer,  the  photog- 
rapher, in  many  a  country  village  enjoys  this  kind  of 
monopoly. 

218.  Monopoly  Prices.  —  It  would  be  a  mistake  to  assume 
that  the  monopolist  always  or  even  usually  charges  prices  so 
high  as  to  be  beyond  the  reach  of  the  common  people.  The 
monopolist  is  out  to  make  as  much  money  as  possible.     If  a 


A  Monopoly  of  Situation. 


breakfast-food  maker  finds  that  he  can  sell  twice  as  much 
of  his  stuff  at  ten  cents  a  package  as  he  could  if  he  charged 
fifteen  cents,  he  is  not  likely  to  charge  the  higher  figure, 
for  the  chances  are  that  by  producing  in  larger  quantities 
he  can  save  much  of  the  cost  of  production  as  well  as  sell 
so  much  more. 

There  are  two  forces  operating  to  limit  the  power  of 
monopoly  to  fix  prices.  One  of  these  is  called  the  power  of 
substitution.  This  means  that  if  some  commodity  costs 
an  unreasonable  price,  people  will  not  use  it,  but  will  take 
something  else  in  its  place.    The  second  is  the  possibility 


340  Business  Organization 

of  competition.  If  a  monopolist  puts  his  price  outrageously 
high,  other  persons  may  be  tempted  to  come  into  the  business. 
For  even  if  they  do  not  have  the  conveniences  for  manu- 
facture that  the  monopolist  enjoys,  they  may  make  enough 
profit  under  less  favorable  conditions  to  induce  them  to 
enter  the  field. 

The  aim  of  the  monopolist  is  to  charge  just  as  much  as 
he  can  without  making  it  possible  for  others  to  come  into  the 
business,  while  at  the  same  time  he  keeps  the  price  low 
enough  so  that  people  will  not  be  encouraged  to  quit  using 
his  product.  The  Standard  Oil  Company,  for  example, 
reduced  the  price  of  kerosene  oil  far  below  what  it  was  be- 
fore the  Company  was  formed,  but  no  one  will  assert  that 
they  put  the  price  as  low  as  they  could  have  done  and  still 
have  made  a  reasonable  profit. 

219.  Public  Policy  Regarding  Monopolies.  —  If  it  is 
true  that  the  proper  motive  in  business  and  politics  should 
be  "  the  greatest  good  to  the  greatest  number,' '  there  is 
no  question  of  the  need  of  regulation  of  monopolies  by  the 
government.  If  the  monopolist  is  producing  one  of  the  neces- 
sities of  life,  he  holds  in  his  hands  the  power  even  of  life  and 
death  over  thousands  and  perhaps  millions  of  people.  By 
all  odds  such  monopolies  should  be  enjoyed  only  by  the 
government  itself  or  under  such  strict  governmental  super- 
vision that  the  monopolist  shall  be  prevented  from  robbing 
the  people  in  order  to  fill  his  own  pockets. 

But  "  big  business  "  has  come  to  stay,  and  if  it  is  kept 
under  proper  control  it  can  often  serve  the .  public  much 
better  than  if  hundreds  of  small  fry  tried  to  do  the  same 
thing  each  for  himself.  What  a  nuisance  it  often  is  to  have 
two  or  three  different  telephone  companies  operating  in  the 
same  city  !  The  person  you  want  to  call  in  a  hurry  quite 
possibly  has  the  other  'phone.  How  much  less  efficient  might 
two  or  three  railroads  be,  which  ran  between  two  cities  of 
moderate  size,  than  one  great  system  which  could  then  make 
enough  to  supply  the  best  cars  and  most  careful  service  with- 


The  Anti-Trust  Laws  341 

out  charging  the  public  a  penny  more  !  If  two  street  car 
companies  try  to  serve  the  same  section  of  a  city,  one  of  them 
or  both  will  probably  go  into  bankruptcy  before  long. 

Do  not  misunderstand  what  we. have  said.  We  do  not 
mean  that  competition  is  not  good.  If  conducted  in  a  fair 
and  honorable  way,  it  is  true,  as  the  adage  runs,  that 
"  competition  is  the  life  of  trade."  But  if  under  modern 
conditions,  competition  may  mean  only  the  crushing  of  the 
weaker  by  the  stronger,  little  good  can  come  to  the  public 
in  return.  Often  monopoly  under  proper  control  can  do 
more  by  far  for  the  people  than  unlimited  competition.  To 
determine  wisely  when  such  circumstances  exist  is  one  of 
the  important  duties  of  our  governments  to-day.  But  un- 
controlled monopoly  is  always  to  be  dreaded  and  prevented. 

220.  The  Anti-Trust  Laws.  —  Our  first  attempts  to  regu- 
late business  in  the  interest  of  the  people  went  on  the  theory 
that  we  ought  to  prevent  any  interference  with  free  com- 
petition. The  Sherman  Anti-Trust  Act,  passed  by  Con- 
gress in  1890,  declared  that  any  combination  "  in  restraint 
of  trade  between  the  states  "  was  illegal.  The  act  lay 
harmlessly  on  the  books  until  President  Roosevelt  came 
into  office.  Believing  that  a  law  is  not  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses only,  he  caused  numerous  prosecutions  to  be  made  for 
violation  of  it,  and  these  were  continued  under  later  ad- 
ministrations. 

The  Standard  Oil  Company  was  ordered  to  break  up  into 
the  parts  from  which  it  was  originally  formed,  and  the  To- 
bacco Trust  was  treated  in  the  same  way.  But  though  some 
good  unquestionably  resulted,  in  that  big  business  organ- 
izations were  more  careful  how  they  conducted  their  busi- 
ness, the  net  result  was  much  less  than  had  been  expected. 
The  Clayton  Act  of  1914  was  intended  to  define  more  clearly 
the  purpose  and  scope  of  trust  regulation,  and  to  make 
clear  just  what  practices  are  illegal. 

Greater  success  has  been  attained  in  dealing  with  the  rail- 
roads.    Beginning  with  the  Interstate  Commerce  Act  of  1887, 


342  Business  Organization 

restrictive  measures  were  started  which  have  wrought  tre- 
mendous improvement.  The  practice  of  "  pooling  "  was  for- 
bidden, for  one  thing.  This  was  the  scheme  by  which  three 
or  four  railroads  running  between  the  same  cities  would  agree 
to  combine  all  their  earnings  and  divide  them  later  in  accord- 
ance with  a  fixed  percentage.  When  such  an  agreement  was 
in  force,  no  road  cared  whether  it  served  the  public  well  or 
not,  for  it  was  to  get  just  so  much  and  no  more  for  its  service, 
and  the  public  had  to  patronize  some  one  of  the  roads  in  the 
"poor'  anyway.  Other  laws  forbade  "rebating"  —  that 
is,  giving  back  to  some  favored  shipper  a  part  of  the  money 
he  was  supposed  to  pay  for  his  freight. 

If  you  buy  a  dozen  pairs  of  stockings  at  once,  should  you  pay 
twelve  times  as  much  as  for  one  pair?  Does  the  same  argument 
apply  to  railroad  rates? 

The  original  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  has  been 
enlarged  in  membership  and  given  so  much  more  power 
that  now  every  change  in  rates  and  every  other  important 
act  of  a  railroad,  telegraph,  telephone,  express  company,  or 
similar  commercial  organization  must  have  the  approval 
of  the  Commission.  Most  of  the  states  have  laws  of  the 
same  kind  to  deal  with  railroads  and  other  public  utilities 
companies  whose  business  is  entirely  within  state  lines. 

An  unfortunate  phase  of  the  problem  appears  in  the  con- 
flict of  authority  which  sometimes  arises  between  the  national 
commission  and  state  supervising  boards.  A  rate,  for  exam- 
ple, authorized  by  a  state  commission  may  affect  shipments 
or  travel  which  enter  into  traffic  in  more  than  one  state, 
and  may  be  inconsistent  with  the  rate  authorized  by  the 
"  I.  C.  C."  for  the  whole  distance.  This  condition  needs  to 
be  remedied  in  some  way. 

But  so  much  good  has  been  accomplished  through  gov- 
ernmental supervision  of  railroads  that  many  people  believe 
a  similar  supervision  of  all  business  organizations  working 
on  an  extensive  scale  will  be  undertaken  before  many  years. 


Our  Merchant  Marine 


343 


The  Federal  Trade  Commission,  which  thus  far  is  allowed 
to  do  little  more  than  investigate  and  recommend,  can  very 
easily  be  given  increased  authority. 

221.  Our  Merchant  Marine.  —  In  spite  of  the  enormous 
growth  of  our  foreign  commerce  in  recent  years,  we  have 
sometimes  felt  humiliated  when  we  noticed  that  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  this  was 
carried  in  ships  which 
flew  other  flags  than  the 
Stars  and  Stripes.  Be- 
fore the  Civil  War  we 
had  a  great  merchant 
fleet,  but  in  late  years 
the  percentage  of  the 
world's  ocean  commerce 
which  we  carry  ourselves 
has  steadily  declined. 

To  remedy  this  situa- 
tion some  people  recom- 
mended a  "  ship  sub- 
sidy "  measure  —  that  is,  that  our  government  should  give 
money  out  of  our  national  treasury  to  assist  companies 
which  would  carry  on  foreign  trade  under  the  American  flag 
Others  thought  it  was  not  wise  to  support  one  particular 
business  in  this  way.  For  this  and  other  reasons  Congress 
failed  to  accept  the  proposition. 

A  new  measure  of  relief  was  undertaken  by  act  of  Con- 
gress in  1916.  A  United  States  Shipping  Board  was  cre- 
ated with  extensive  authority  to  assist  in  the  development 
of  our  commerce.  A  fund  of  $50,000,000  was  authorized 
which  could  be  used  in  the  purchase  of  ships  for  use  as  mer- 
chant vessels  in  the  first  place,  but  subject  to  the  demand 
of  the  government  for  service  as  auxiliaries  to  the  United 
States  Navy.  Wonderful  progress  in  shipbuilding  resulted. 
The  tonnage  of  American  ships  almost  doubled  in  two  years, 
and  we  are  again  second  only  to  Great  Britain. 


A  Five- Master. 

In  Boston  Harbor.     We  see  few  of  these 
now. 


344  Business  Organization 

222.  Industrial  Preparedness.  —  One  outcome  of  the 
Great  War  was  the  realization  that  "  preparedness,"  about 
which  so  much  was  said,  depends  as  much  upon  the  ability 
to  employ  the  industries  of  a  nation  in  order  to  get  the  most 
service  from  them  as  to  have  a  large  army  and  navy.  The 
spirit  of  understanding  and  harmony  between  labor  and 
capital,  between  one  industry  and  another,  between  govern- 
ment and  business,  is  of  immense  importance  to  the  nation. 


W^mi,'*-                H  HfejMtffek 

H 

■ 

\vm\i 
i 

Two  Views  of  the  Same  Plant. 

The  same  work  was  being  done  in  both  cases.     Industrial  efficiency  is  not 
consistent  with  such  waste  as  the  picture  at  the  right  indicates. 

Some  time  after  the  outbreak  of  the  war  a  number  of 
men  prominent  in  the  management  of  American  industries 
were  assembled  as  an  advisory  "  National  Council  for  De- 
fense," to  cooperate  with  members  of  the  Cabinet.  They 
went  to  work  to  find  out  exactly  what  our  resources  were 
and  how  they  could  best  be  brought  into  service.  Govern- 
ment officials  also  tried  to  put  their  own  departments  in  the 
possession  of  all  information  which  would  be  useful  in  the 
same  direction.     A  general  desire  was  aroused  to  learn 


Questions  345 

how  to  avoid  waste,  to  get  the  most  out  of  the  labor  and 
capital  that  were  employed,  and  to  make  it  all  count  for 
the  benefit  of  the  whole  nation. 

If  this  is  good  in  time  of  war,  it  is  useful  in  time  of  peace. 
It  is  surely  to  be  hoped  that  this  worthy  purpose  may  be 
lasting.  Even  if  it  requires  centralization  of  authority  in 
the  national  government  beyond  what  many  Americans 
have  been  wont  to  believe  in,  thoroughness,  efficiency,  and 
cooperation  among  all  our  workers  in  all  our  industries 
are  worth  the  price. 

To  what  extent  are  industrial  changes  responsible  for  changes  in 
government  ?  Does  it  make  any  difference  to  you  personally  how 
industry  is  carried  on  ?  What  changes  which  the  Great  War  caused 
in  American  industrial  life  seem  likely  to  be  permanent  ? 

QUESTIONS 

Show  the  importance  of  capital  in  different  stages  of  civilization. 
What  things  constitute  capital  f  What  are  capital  goods  ?  What 
constitutes  wealth  f    When  is  a  man  wealthy? 

Show  the  necessity  of  organization  in  business.  Explain  entre- 
preneur; partnership;  corporation.  How  is  a  corporation  managed ? 
What  advantages  does  each  of  these  forms  of  organization  have 
which  the  others  do  not?  Relate  the  development  of  the  trust. 
Why  is  it  difficult  to  control  it?  Are  there  "good"  and  "bad" 
trusts  ? 

Trace  the  growth  of  division  of  labor  among  workmen.  Classify 
the  grades  of  workers.  Give  examples  in  all  cases.  What  is  the 
effect  of  the  tendency  toward  specialization  ? 

When  does  a  monopoly  exist  ?  Explain  five  classes  of  monopolies. 
What  considerations  influence  a  monopolist  in  deciding  the  price 
of  his  product  ?  Is  the  principle  of  monopoly  wrong  ?  Do  monop- 
olies ever  benefit  the  public  ?  What  has  the  Sherman  Anti-Trust 
Act  to  do  with  our  recent  industrial  history? 

Define  pooling;  rebate.  How  far  should  state  or  national  govern- 
ments supervise  or  control  railroads  and  "big  business"? 

Compare  our  merchant  marine  before  the  Civil  War  and  to-day. 
What  is  the  purpose  of  the  Government  Shipping  Board?  What, 
if  anything,  should  the  government  do  further  in  the  matter  ? 

Explain  the  meaning  and  importance  of  industrial  preparedness. 


346  Business  Organization 


SPECIAL  TOPICS 

The  Business  Life  of  John  D.  Rockefeller  and  the  Standard  Oil 
Company. 

The  United  States  Steel  Corporation. 

Resolved,  that  the  maker  of  a  patented  article  should  be  allowed 
to  fix  its  retail  price  and  define  the  conditions  under  which  it  may 
be  used. 

Resolved,  that  the  Sherman  Anti-Trust  law  should  be  repealed 
and  instead  the  Federal  Trade  Commission  be  given  authority  to 
control  corporation  activities. 

Resolved,  that  Congress  should  assist  private  shipping  firms  by 
money  grants  and  otherwise  to  build  up  a  greater  American  mer- 
chant marine. 

The  History  of  the  Express  Business  in  the  United  States. 

Resolved,  that  the  parcel  post  service  of  the  national  govern- 
ment should  take  over  all  the  business  now  done  by  the  express 
companies. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

SAVING  OUR  NATURAL  RESOURCES 


We  are  prosperous  now ;  we  should  not  forget  that  it  will  he  just 
as  important  to  our  descendants  to  be  prosperous  in  their  time, 

—  Roosevelt. 

223.  Importance  of  Natural  Resources.  —  In  explaining 
the  three  factors  in  production,  we  noted  that  land,  as  the 
economist  calls  it,  is  absolutely  essential  to  every  industry. 
Of  exceptional  importance,  then,  is  the  preservation  of  the 
gifts  of  nature  from  waste  and  wanton  destruction.  The 
conservation  of  natural  resources  is  the  term  we  commonly 
apply  to  this  problem.  Conservation  means  a  little  more 
than  preservation.  The  latter  refers  merely  to  rescuing 
our  resources  from  destruction,  but  the  former  includes  the 
idea  of  using  them  wisely  while  they  are  being  saved.  Con- 
servation is  not  a  "  dog  in  the  manger  "  policy,  as  some 
assert. 

When  our  forefathers  came  to  this  country  they  found 
what  was  perhaps  the  most  wonderfully  endowed  land  on 
the  face  of  the  earth.  Fertile  soil,  timber,  water,  metals, 
and  minerals  —  everything  that  a  great  country  could  re- 
quire, except  brains  to  use  it  properly.  In  our  haste  to  take 
advantage  of  these  gifts  of  nature,  we  seem  to  have  followed 
the  policy  of  "  getting  while  the  getting  is  good,"  with  utter 
forgetfulness  of  what  will  happen  when  we  have  used  up  all 
our  good  things.  There  was  a  "  get-rich-quick  "  spirit  in 
the  people  who  have  worked  with  our  natural  resources 
which    militated    against    carefulness    and    thoroughness. 

347 


348  Saving  Our  Natural  Resources 

The  result  is  that  we  have  ruined  much  of  our  splendid  raw 
material  so  that  neither  we  nor  anybody  else  can  hope  to 
do  much  with  it. 

Make  a  map  of  the  United  States  that  will  show  its  natural  re- 
sources. What  industries  in  your  state  or  community  depend  upon 
natural  resources?     Have  they  been  properly  managed? 

224.  The  Conservation  Movement.  —  A  few  thoughtful 
men  pondered  deeply  over  the  situation  long  before  they 


Trees  Planted"  by  the  Pennsylvania  Department  of  Forestry. 
Before  the  Great  War  this  Department  planted  about  6,000,000  trees  a  year. 

could  get  many  people  interested  or  induce  our  state  and 
national  governments  to  take  action.  Too  often  the  selfish 
interests  that  wanted  to  waste  and  plunder  our  forests  and 
mines  controlled  the  state  legislatures  and  would  consent 
to  no  change  in  our  policy.  Besides,  the  mass  of  the  people 
did  not  understand  the  situation. 

It  takes  time  to  educate  a  whole  people,  and  meantime 
the  land-robbers  were  active  in  making  the  most  of  their 
opportunity.  Then  when  the  national  government  under- 
took to  act,  these  men  argued  that  the  land  was  the  property 


The  Conservation  Movement 


349 


of  the  states  and  it  was  the  states'  business  to  deal  with  the 
problem.  They  figured  that  their  desire  for  plunder  could 
be  more  easily  gratified  through  the  states  than  through  the 
national  government. 

At  the  risk  of  being  unfair  to  many  others  who  have  de- 
voted much  time  and  labor  to  arousing  the  people  to  protect 
the  interests  of  the  nation,  we  will  name  Gifford  Pinchot, 
Theodore  Roosevelt,  and 
Charles  R.  Van  Hise  as 
three  men  to  whom  the 
nation's  thanks  are  due 
more  than  we  probably 
realize.  Pinchot  was 
Chief  of  the  National 
Forest  Service  for  twelve 
years,  and  not  only  or- 
ganized it  into  the  force 
for  good  which  it  is  to- 
day, but  worked  unceas- 
ingly to  present  the  whole 
question  of  conservation 
so  that  the  people  might 
understand  it.  President 
Roosevelt,  a  personal 
friend  of  Pinchot,  gave 
the  force  of  his  mighty 
energy  and  the  full  back- 
ing of  his  presidential  office  to  furthering  the  cause  of  con- 
servation. No  other  president,  and  perhaps  not  all  others 
together,  did  so  much.  Mr.  Van  Hise  was  the  president  of 
the  University  of  Wisconsin,  one  of  the  institutions  which 
try  to  make  themselves  useful  to  all  the  people.  His  book, 
"  The  Conservation  of  Natural  Resources,"  is  the  most 
complete  brief  presentation  of  the  subject  in  popular  style 
which  has  appeared,  and  gives  the  facts  so  that  they  can  be 
understood  by  every  one. 


Gifford  Pinchot. 


350  Saving  Our  Natural  Resources 

225.  Forest  Conservation.  —  The  destruction  of  the 
forests  is  something  that  the  eye  can  observe  for  itself,  and 
needs  little  explanation  to  make  it  understood.  Once  45 
per  cent  of  the  United  States  was  wooded,  but  one  third  of 
that  forest  has  been  wholly  cleared  away.  Recently  we  have 
been  cutting  down  every  year  three  times  as  much  as  grew 
up.     It  does  not  take  much  arithmetic  to  determine  where 


Wasteful  Lumbering. 

Notice  how  carelessly  the  cutting  has  been  done  and  how  much  usable 
wood  is  being  thrown  away. 

we  shall  get  to  if  that  process  continues.  But  happily  steps 
have  been  taken  to  save  us  from  that  peril.  Chiefly  by 
President  Roosevelt  over  180,000,000  acres  of  land,  mostly  in 
the  western  states,  have  been  set  apart  as  forest  reserves  to  be 
kept  under  government  control.  A  forest  service  employing 
nearly  4000  people  takes  care  of  these  reserves,  protecting  the 
trees  from  destruction,  planting  new  ones,  and  watching  for 
forest  fires.    The  number  is  not  at  all  sufficient  to  do  the 


Forest  Conservation 


351 


work  as  it  should  be  done,  but  they  have  accomplished 
wonders. 

Some  of  the  land  set  apart  as  forest  reserves  is  later  found 
to  be  better  suited  for  other  than  forest  purposes.  When 
this  is  discovered  the  land  may  again  be  thrown  open  for 
occupation.  Permits  are 
sometimes  granted  which 
allow  private  cattle 
raisers  and  sheep  growers 
to  feed  their  stock  on  the 
reserves.  Some  timber 
is  sold,  too,  and  in  several 
ways  the  forest  lands 
help  to  pay  the  expense 
of  maintaining  the  forest 
service. 

In  the  Appalachian 
Highlands,  as  far  as  from 
New  Hampshire  to 
Georgia,  a  series  of 
eastern  national  forests 
is  planned.  These  are 
meant  especially  to  be 
located  near  the  head- 
waters of  rivers,  for  the 
forests  help  to  regulate 
the  flow  of  water  into 
the  streams,  so  that  there 

need  not  be  such  a  destructive  alternation  of  floods  and 
droughts,  as  always  follows  the  reckless  cutting  down  of 
the  trees. 

More  than  half  the  states  have  a  state  forester  or  forest 
commissioner,  who  endeavors  to  promote  forest  conserva- 
tion and  assist  the  people  in  the  planting  and  care  of  trees. 
Several  states,  notably  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  have 
extensive  forest  reserves  of  their  own.     Many  of  them  co- 


One  of  California's  Big  Trees. 


352  Saving  Our  Natural  Resources 

operate  with  private  owners  in  endeavoring  to  prevent 
the  ravages  of  forest  fires. 

226.  Water  Conservation.  —  Closely  related  to  the  prob- 
lem of  the  forests  is  that  of  water  conservation,  for  the  effect 
of  forests  upon  the  water  flow  makes  it  essential  that  a  policy- 
affecting  one  shall  not  conflict  with  the  proper  management 


A  Flood  in  the  Allegheny. 

To  prevent  occurrences  like  this,  as  well  as  periods  of  low  water  in  the 
summer,  a  system  of  reservoirs  up  the  river  has  been  proposed,  to  hold  the 
surplus  water  and  make  the  flow  more  regular. 

of  the  other.  The  control  of  the  waters  so  as  to  prevent 
floods  is  of  immense  importance  to  many  sections  of  the 
country,  and  we  are  not  yet  sure  how  this  can  best  be  done 
in  all  cases. 

Years  ago  the  larger  streams  were  very  extensively  em- 
ployed for  commerce,  but,  after  the  railroads  came,  water 
transportation  gradually  fell  into  disuse.  But  there  are 
many  commodities  which  can  be  carried  much  more  cheaply 


Water  Conservation 


353 


by  water,  and  which  are  not  perishable  so  that  there  is  need 
of  hurry  in  transporting  them. 

To  revive  the  use  of  streams  for  navigation,  there  has 
been  much  discussion  of  plans  for  constructing  canals  around 
rapids  and  falls.  Notably  to  make  the  Ohio  River  fit  for 
extensive  commercial  use,  numerous  locks  and  dams  have 
been  constructed,  with  the  intention  of  making  a  continuous 
waterway  from  Pittsburgh  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.     Another 


_  Ivanta  Railroad 
Niagara  Falls. 

Long  famous  for  their  natural  grandeur,  the  Falls  have  now  been  har- 
nessed to  furnish  power  and  light.  It  is  hoped  that  this  will  not  impair 
their  beauty. 

series  of  canals  which  has  been  partly  constructed  by  the 
states  or  by  the  national  government  is  intended  to  parallel 
the  Atlantic  coast,  far  enough  inland  to  be  safe  at  all  times 
from  the  ocean  storms  and  other  outside  dangers. 

The  use  of  the  enormous  available  power  that  is  stored 
up  in  the  streams  is  another  important  problem.  To  let 
so  much  of  it  go  to  waste  is  an  economic  crime,  but  it  is  also 
a  crime  to  permit  it  to  be  used  by  private  corporations  to 
add  riches  to  their  own  treasury  and  to  lock  up  this  energy 


354  Saving  Our  National  Resources 

so  that  the  nation  cannot  profit  from  the  streams  which 
belong  to  all  the  people. 

It  is  estimated  that  60  per  cent  of  the  water  power  of  the 
country  is  already  in  the  hands  of  a  small  group  of  investors 
and  speculators.  That  the  nation  shall  keep  for  itself  the 
other  40  per  cent  would  seem  to  be  the  simplest  kind  of 
common  sense.  One  plan  is  to  rent  the  use  of  the  streams 
for  power  purposes,   instead   of  the   government's   selling 


The  California  Desert. 

Much  of  southern  California  and  other  parts  of  the  West  once  showed 
nothing  but  scenes  like  this. 

the  privilege  to  the  user  outright  and  so  losing  control  of  it 
forever.  A  Federal  Water  Power  Board  composed  of  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior, 
and  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  has  been  created,  to  pass 
judgment  on  applications  for  the  use  of  the  water  power 
on  government  lands. 

227.  Land  Conservation.  —  Millions  of  acres  of  some 
of  the  richest  land  on  the  continent  lie  in  the  western 
deserts,  waiting  for  the  magic  touch  of  the  water.  The 
water  is  waiting,  too,  but  it  has  to  be  harnessed  and  turned 


Land  Conservation 


355 


into  proper  channels  to  carry  it  where  it  will  do  the  most 
good. 

Many  wonderful  irrigation  enterprises  have  been  un- 
dertaken by  private  capital.  One  of  the  most  notable 
of  these  is  the  system  which  takes  the  water  of  the  Colo- 
rado River  and  turns  it  upon  the  Imperial  Valley  of 
California,  once  one  of  the  most  forbidding  deserts  on  the 
continent. 

The  national  government  has  also  spent  many  millions 


Irrigation  Canal,  Imperial  Valley,  California. 

The  water  comes  from  the  Colorado  River.    The  region  served  by  it  is 
below  sea  level. 


of  dollars  constructing  great  dams  and  canals  for  irrigation 
purposes.  The  Roosevelt  Dam  in  Arizona,  the  Shoshone 
Dam  in  Wyoming,  the  Elephant  Butte  Dam  in  New 
Mexico,  and  several  others,  store  up  water  which  makes 
it  possible  to  cultivate  profitably  many  thousands  of  acres 
for  each  one.  The  occupants  of  land  irrigated  through  these 
projects  pay  a  sum  for  their  water  rights  which  is  applied 
to  the  cost  of  operating  the  irrigation  systems.  The  Recla- 
mation Service  of  the  national  government  is  a  branch  of 
the  Department  of  the  Interior.     California  has  more  ir- 


356 


Saving  Our  Natural  Resources 


rigated  farms  than  any  other  state,  but  from  the  Plains 
states  to  the  coast  every  state  has  many  of  them. 

A  different  kind  of  land  conservation  is  that  of  the  swamp 
lands,  such  as  the  Everglades  of  Florida  and  the  lower 
Mississippi  and  the  Gulf  region.  At  an  expense  estimated 
at  from  $5  to  $35  an  acre,  drainage  canals  can  be  con- 
structed which  will  raise  the  value  of  the  land  drained  by 


A  Street  Corner  in  Calexico,  California. 

Only  a  few  years  ago  this  section  looked  like  the  "California  Desert" 
on  page  354.  Since  then  the  water  has  come.  Read  the  story  of  the 
Imperial  Valley,  as  told  in  "The  Winning  of  Barbara  Worth."  Many  of 
its  characters  are  drawn  from  life. 


them  at  least  tenfold.  In  the  entire  country  there  are  about 
70,000,000  acres  of  this  swamp  land  which  can  be  made 
very  profitable  for  agriculture.  Surely  it  is  good  business  to 
make  use  of  it. 

A  phase  of  conservation  which  is  inspired  less  by  economic 
motives  than  by  a  love  of  nature  and  beauty  is  that  which 
has  brought  about  the  setting  aside  of  numerous  regions  as 
national  parks.  Geysers,  glaciers,  marvelous  waterfalls, 
forest  giants,  such  as  are  found  in  Yellowstone  Park,  Glacier 


Other  Conservation  Problems 


357 


National  Park  in  Montana,  and  Yosemite  Park,  ought  never 
to  pass  into  private  hands  to  be  kept  for  selfish  profit  or 
ruined   through   commercial  greed.     These   and   numerous 

other  places  of  scenic  or     

historic  interest  have 
been  kept  as  play- 
grounds and  wonder- 
lands for  the  people. 
They  are  under  the  care 
of  the  Department  of 
the  Interior. 

228.  Other  Conser- 
vation Problems. — 
Many  interests  along 
the  line  of  conservation 
must  be  handled  by  the 
states.  The  frightful 
waste  in  mining  coal, 
lead,  zinc,  and  other 
metals  and  minerals 
must  be  reached  chiefly 
through  state  control, 
except  where  they  are 
found  on  government 
land,  for  until  these 
products  get  into  inter- 
state commerce  the  fed- 
eral government  has 
little  means  of  reaching 
them.  Enormous  amounts  of  coal,  however,  exist  in  Alaska, 
and  extensive  supplies  of  oil  and  other  mineral  products  in 
other  national  lands. 

What  will  this  country  do  when  the  coal  and  oil  are  gone? 

Though  harsh  criticism  has  been  visited  upon  the  govern- 
ment by  some  people  for  not  throwing  these  open  to  private 


A  View  in  the  Yosemite  Valley,  Cali- 
fornia. 

For  scenes   in   other  national  parks, 
see  pages  197,  351,  359,  434,  and  462. 


358 


Saving  Our  Natural  Resources 


operation,  it  is  unquestionably  wiser  for  the  error  to  be  made 
on  the  side  of  overcaution.  To  lease  these  lands,  charging 
a  royalty  for  each  ton  of  coal  or  other  product  obtained 
from  them,  and  insisting  on  careful  and  thorough  oper- 
ation, seems  to  be  the  policy  best 
suited  to  get  the  most  out  of  our 
resources  to-day  and  to  save  them 
in  the  best  shape  for  the  Ameri- 
cans of  to-morrow. 

229.  Homestead  Laws.  —  Our 
government  has  been  extremely 
generous  with  its  public  land,  on 
the  theory  that  it  was  wise  to  get 
it  settled  as  rapidly  as  possible. 
A  person  could  get  a  quarter- 
section  (160  acres)  by  paying  very 
small  fees,  if  only  he  occupied  it 
five  years  and  made  improve- 
ments on  it.  There  are  still  over 
275,000,000  acres  of  public  land 
open  for  occupation  in  this  way  in  the  United  States  proper, 
besides  considerably  more  than  that  amount  in  Alaska. 
Much  of  this  is  not  suitable  for  farming  and  is  not  attrac- 
tive for  "  homesteaders  "  to  occupy. 

One  trouble  with  our  generosity  has  been  the  loopholes 
in  the  laws  which  enabled  private  corporations  to  get  this 
land  which  was  intended  for  occupation  by  actual  settlers 
and  then  to  use  it  for  their  own  purposes.  Great  care  is 
now  taken  to  prevent  this  abuse.  The  government  also 
may  reserve  the  right  to  any  coal  or  other  metal  or  mineral 
found  under  the  surface  if  the  land  has  been  taken  for 
agricultural  purposes. 

230.  Animal  Life.  —  Conservation  applies  to  animal  life, 
too.  Every  state  has  its  fish  and  game  laws,  to  prevent 
the  complete  destruction  of  these  living  things.  The  federal 
government  has  established  a  few  bird  reserves  in  the  south- 


Oil  Derrick. 
Coleman,  Texas. 


Questions  359 

em  states  for  the  protection  of  certain  feathered  folk,  and 
has  recently  negotiated  a  treaty  with  Canada  to  protect 
migratory  birds.  Congress  has  made  it  a  crime  to  transport 
in  interstate  commerce  the  plumes  of  the  egret  which  was 
being  rapidly  hunted  to  death  to  gratify  the  ladies'  desire 
for  ornament.     Special  effort  is  also  undertaken  to  save  the 


I"n  the  Garden  of  the  Gods,  Colorado. 

buffalo,  the  fur  seal  of  Bering  Sea,  and  other  forms  of  animal 
life,  and  to  encourage  the  raising  of  Alaskan  reindeer  and 
other  animals  that  are  of  direct  use  to  man,  but  have  been 
wantonly  slaughtered. 

What  kinds  of  birds  common  in  your  neighborhood  need  special 
care?  How  can  they  be  best  protected?  Should  cats  be  licensed 
as  dogs  are? 

QUESTIONS 

Explain  the  meaning  and  importance  of  conservation.  Why  has 
it  not  received  proper  attention  in  this  country?  Name  some  of 
the  men  who  have  endeavored  to  arouse  popular  interest  in  the 
matter.  Is  it  better  that  the  state  or  the  national  government 
should  exercise  chief  control  over  conservation  policies? 

What  are  forest  reserves?    Why  are  they  needed?    How  are 


360  Saving  Our  Natural  Resources 

they  managed  ?  Show  the  connection  between  forest  conservation 
and  water  conservation.  Discuss  the  importance  of  the  use  of 
water  for  transportation  and  for  power.  How  can  this  be  best 
controlled  ? 

Show  the  importance  of  irrigation  to  the  Far  West.  Give  some 
examples  of  public  and  private  irrigation  systems.  How  can  drain- 
age be  applied  to  land  conservation?  What  and  where  are  our 
national  parks?     Why  and  how  are  they  cared  for? 

Explain  conservation  with  reference  to  our  mineral  resources. 
What  do  you  consider  the  best  way  to  administer  these  resources? 
What  purpose  and  method  has  been  followed  in  our  "homestead" 
laws?  Should  that  policy  be  permanent?  Why  is  conservation  of 
animal  life  important  ?     Give  examples  of  it. 


SPECIAL  TOPICS 

The  Public  Services  of  Gifford  Pinchot. 

The  National  Forest  Service. 

The  Reclamation  Service. 

What  is  Left  of  Our  Public  Land. 

What  Our  State  is  Doing  for  Conservation. 

The  Fish  and  Game  Laws  of  Our  State. 

Seals  and  Reindeer  in  Alaska. 

The  Protection  of  the  Birds. 

Coal  Distribution  in  Peace  and  War. 


C.    Social  Problems 

CHAPTER  XXV 

THE  STATE'S  BUKDENS 


A  threefold  responsibility  is  thrown  upon  society,— to  guard 
itself  against  the  acts  of  the  criminal,  to  bring  home  the  conse- 
quences to  the  wrong-doer,  and  to  prevent  crime.  —  Wright. 

The  poor  must  be  widely  visited  and  liberally  cared  for,  so  that 
mendicity  shall  not  be  tempted  into  mendacity ,  nor  want  exasper- 
ated into  crime.  —  Winthrop. 


231.  Crime  and  Its  Classification.  —  It  will  be  well  for 
us  to  understand  right  at  the  start  of  our  discussion  what 
the  word  "  crime  "  means.  It  means  simply  a  disregard 
of  law,  either  in  doing  something  that  the  law  forbids  or  in 
failing  to  do  something  that  the  law  commands. 

It  may  or  may  not  be  morally  wrong.  No  moral  wrong 
can  be  charged  against  a  man  for  peddling  vegetables  from 
house  to  house,  but  if  a  city  passes  an  ordinance  requiring 
all  peddlers  to  take  out  a  license  the  man  who  sells  without 
a  license  commits  a  crime.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not 
usually  a  crime  in  a  state  that  allows  saloons  for  one  man  to 
urge  another  to  go  with  him  and  have  a  drink;  but  if  the 
second  man  is  trying  to  break  away  from  the  liquor  habit, 
it  may  be  one  of  the  most  wrongful  acts  a  person  could  com- 
mit to  put  strong  temptation  in  his  way.  Yet  most  crimes 
do  belong  to  the  list  of  acts  which  society  as  a  whole  thinks 
should  not  be  performed. 

Naturally  there  are  grades  of  crime.  Very  serious  vio- 
lations of  law  are  often  called  felonies,  and  may  be  punished 

361 


362  The  StateVBurdens 

by  terms  of  imprisonment,  and  sometimes  by  a  fine  in  addi- 
tion. Less  serious  offenses  are  commonly  known  as  mis- 
demeanors, and  are  punishable  by  a  small  fine  or  a  short 
term  of  imprisonment. 

For  convenience  we  sometimes  attempt  to  classify  crimes 
into  a  few  groups.     The  following  will  serve  as  one  grouping : 

(1)  Crimes  against  the  state  and  public  order.  These  in- 
clude such  acts  as  treason,  which  is  really  an  effort  to  under- 
mine the  government ;  riot,  which  is  a  willful  disturbance  of 
the  peace  by  a  body  of  persons  acting  in  unison ;  and  coun- 
terfeiting, which  is  imitation  of  the  money  issued  by  the 
government. 

(2)  Crimes  against  public  health  and  decency.  Under 
this  head  come  bigamy,  that  is,  having  two  wives  at  once ; 
blasphemy,  vulgar  or  irreverent  reference  to  God;  and 
keeping  a  nuisance,  that  is,  any  place  grossly  offensive  to  a 
community's  sense  of  neatness  or  morals. 

(3)  Crimes  against  the  person.  Murder,  the  deliberate, 
intentional  killing  of  a  person;  manslaughter,  the  taking 
of  life  not  with  previous  intention,  but  because  of  inexcusable 
carelessness  or  neglect ;  assault,  personal  attack  by  one  upon 
another  —  these  are  examples  of  this  class. 

(4)  Crimes  against  property.  In  this  list  are  found  bur- 
glary, the  breaking  into  a  building  in  order  to  steal ;  arson, 
the  intentional  destruction  of  property  by  fire ;  and  embezzle- 
ment, the  taking  for  personal  use  of  property  intrusted  to 
a  person  to  care  for. 

Of  course  these  are  only  examples  of  a  long  list  of  acts  which 
the  law  considers  as  crimes.  This  list  does  not  include, 
either,  the  great  number  of  wrongs  known  as  torts,  to  which 
the  state  pays  no  attention  unless  the  person  who  is  wronged 
brings  the  affair  into  court.  This  class  of  cases  includes 
such  acts  as  slander,  libel,  and  breaking  of  contracts. 

The  total  number  of  crimes  committed  we  can  only  guess 
at.  Every  year  about  500,000  jail  or  prison  sentences  are 
imposed  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period,  but  this  does  not 


Causes  of  Crime  363 

represent  all  of  the  crimes  committed.  Some  criminals  are 
let  off  without  a  sentence,  some  are  merely  fined,  and  many 
are  not  caught  at  all.  Not  so  many  brutal  crimes  occur  as 
were  common  years  ago,  but  forgery  and  other  crimes  re- 
quiring skill,  cunning,  or  deceit  are  more  numerous  than 
formerly. 

232.  Causes  of  Crime.  —  "  One  point  must  still  be  greatly 
dark,  the  moving  why  they  do  it,"  said  the  poet  Burns.  It 
is  not  always  possible  to  explain  the  reason  for  the  com- 
mission of  a  crime,  but  as  we  survey  a  large  number  of  cases 
certain  conditions  appear  to  have  affected  a  considerable 
number  of  persons.  These  may  be  grouped  as  individual 
and  social. 

One  individual  cause  is  heredity.  It  has  been  proved  be- 
yond doubt  that  the  tendency  to  commit  crime  runs  in  some 
families  and  seems  to  be  inherited  just  as  looks  or  size  may 
be.  Lack  of  education  or  training,  which  keeps  a  person 
ignorant  of  the  law  or  allows  him  to  do  improper  acts  because 
he  knows  no  better,  is  another  reason  which  applies  to 
many  criminals.  A  vast  majority  of  criminals  are  unedu- 
cated. 

Bad  habits,  such  as  the  use  of  liquor  or  drugs,  sometimes 
get  men  into  a  condition  where  they  commit  crimes  without 
realizing  it  at  the  time.  They  may  also  arouse  passions 
which  are  hard  to  control  while  at  the  same  time  they  have 
weakened  a  person's  will  power  so  that  it  is  hard  for  him  to 
resist  temptation.  Idleness,  lack  of  regular  employment, 
and  incompetency  to  carry  on  any  trade  or  business  are 
responsible  for  other  people's  straying  from  the  path  of  right. 

The  list  of  social  conditions  which  help  to  produce  crime 
is  long.  Of  these,,  home  surroundings  doubtless  affect 
more  than  any  other  one  cause.  A  boy  or  girl  brought  up 
in  a  family  where  no  attention  is  paid  to  teaching  a  child 
what  is  right  and  what  is  wrong  is  very  likely  not  to  make 
any  distinctions  of  that  kind  in  dealing  with  other  people. 
The  recreations  and  amusements  indulged  in  by  persons 


364 


The  State's  Burdens 


young  or  old  may  be  responsible  for  their  obedience  or 
disobedience  to  law.  A  frequenter  of  gambling  joints,  sa- 
loons, cheap  "  movies,"  public  dance  halls,  and  the  like,  is 
apt  to  become  associated  with  men  or  scenes  whose  influ- 
ence is  ruinous,  and  may  sooner  or  later  become  a  criminal. 
When  hard  times  prevail  and  many  are  out  of  work, 

there  are  many  instances 
of  stealing  and  similar 
crimes  in  order  to  obtain 
things  which  a  person 
has  not  the  money  to  pay 
for.  As  the  old  saying 
had  it,  "  Satan  finds 
some  mischief  still  for 
idle  hands  to  do."  Many 
a  person  has  got  into 
trouble  because  there 
was  nothing  to  hold  his 
attention  and  keep  his 
mind  occupied. 

A  low  standard  of  pub- 
lic sentiment  in  a  community  also  conduces  to  the  com- 
mission of  crime.  If  certain  laws  are  openly  violated,  or  if 
only  a  half-hearted  effort  is  made  to  enforce  any  laws,  crime 
will  naturally  flourish.  Public  officers  will  generally  do  what 
a  community  wants  them  to  do.  It  is  hard  to  enforce 
laws,  too,  which  a  large  number  of  people  do  not  believe  in. 
Yet  the  mere  fact  that  some  men  think  a  law  is  unwise  does 
not  by  any  means  prove  that  one  has  a  right  to  disobey  it. 

Rank  the  causes  of  crime  in  what  you  consider  their  relative 


Courtesy  of  National  Child  Labor  Committee 

An  Unprofitable  Pastime. 

The  newsboy's  occupation  brings  him  into 
contact  with  countless  undesirable  con- 
ditions. 


233.  Treatment  of  Criminals.  —  Nowhere  in  the  relations 
of  men  with  one  another  has  a  more  remarkable  change 
taken  place  in  the  last  century  than  in  the  way  we  act 
toward  the  criminal.     Once  "his  hand  was  against  every 


Treatment  of  Criminals 


365 


Old-time  Prison  Equipment. 

The  ball  and  chain,  bucket,  chair,  and 
door  have  all  been  in  active  service. 


man's,  and  every  man's  hand  against  him."  The  spirit  of 
revenge  seemed  to  be  the  motive  for  dealing  with  the  crim- 
inal. He  had  wronged  society;  therefore  society  would 
get  back  at  him.  It  was  the  "  eye  for  an  eye,  tooth  for  a 
tooth "  principle.  For 
scores  of  offenses  the 
penalty  was  death,  and 
the  life  in  prisons  was 
sometimes  even  worse 
than  death. 

A  less  objectionable 
attitude  was  that  which 
felt  that  society  ought 
to  protect  its  members 
from  the  harm  and  evil 
influence  of  the  criminal, 
and  therefore  should  put 
him  in  prison  where  his 
evil  influence  could  not  harm  other  people.  For  a  long 
time,  too,  the  idea  was  common  that  by  making  penalties 
heavy  enough  we  could  scare  people  from  committing  crime. 

None  of  these  methods  took  into  account  the  criminal  him- 
self or  allowed  a  chance  for  him  to  get  a  new  start  after  he 
had  once  gone  wrong.  This  object,  the  reformation  of  the 
offender,  and  the  prevention  of  crime  by  removing  condi- 
tions which  produce  it,  are  two  cardinal  features  of  present 
treatment  of  the  problem  of  crime. 

Society  must  always  protect  itself  against  the  hardened 
criminal.  It  is  a  sickly  sentimentality  which  assumes  that 
the  criminars  environment  and  not  himself  are  always  to 
be  blamed.  But  every  possible  encouragement  should  be 
given  to  the  fallen  man  or  woman  who  wants  to  begin  over 
again  and  to  do  the  right  thing  by  the  community  which 
affords  him  a  chance  to  earn  his  living. 

And  so  criminals  are  sometimes  let  out  on  probation  — 
that  is,  as  long  as  they  do  right  no  punishment  will  be  inflicted 


366 


The  State's  Burdens 


for  some  crime  which  has  been  committed.  The  indeter- 
minate sentence  is  becoming  common.  This  is  not  imposed 
for  a  definite  period,  but  permits  the  offender  to  be  released 
after  a  while,  on  his  parole,  or  promise  to  obey  the  laws. 
Then  if  he  does  not  keep  his  promise  he  can  be  brought 

back  to  serve  a  longer 
period.  Or  if  he  does 
not  behave  properly  dur- 
ing his  first  imprison- 
ment, he  will  not  be 
given  his  freedom  until 
the  end  of  the  longer 
term.  In  the  majority 
of  prisons  nowadays 
some  attempt  is  made 
to  give  a  man  the  chance 
to  improve  himself  while 
he  is  there  and  to  treat 
him  as  if  he  were  still 
a  human  being,  even 
though  he  had  done 
wrong  and  been  caught 
at  it. 

Can  you  imagine  how 
you  would  feel  if  you  were 
in  the  criminal's  place? 

But  just  as  important 
as  the  fair  treatment  of 
the  criminal,  yes,  even 
more  important,  is  the 
removal  of  the  conditions 
that  produce  crime.  It  is  sending  good  money  after  bad  to 
give  a  criminal  the  opportunity  to  wash  up  and  put  on 
clean  clothes,  and  ask  him  if  he  does  not  want  to  live  a 
better  life,  if  the  slum  district  from  which  he  may  have 
come  is  breeding  scores  more  just  like  him. 


Cell    Corridor    in    a    County    Work- 
house. 

In  this  wing  of  the  building  are  504 
concrete  cells,  each  provided  with  toilet, 
wash  basin,  clothes  rack,  book  shelf, 
seat,  table,  and  bed.  An  automatic  lock- 
ing device  makes  it  possible  to  lock  all 
the  cells  in  this  row  at  once. 


Institutions  for  the  Criminal  367 

Improvement  of  home  conditions  among  the  poor  and  in 
the  tenement  districts,  the  opening  of  playgrounds,  libraries, 
and  other  places  where  people  can  get  wholesome  amusement 
and  recreation,  and  the  efforts  to  provide  a  man  with  a 
job  if  he  wants  to  work,  are  very  practical  steps  that  must 
help  to  relieve  the  seriousness  of  the  problem  of  the  criminal. 
But,  like  the  poor,  he  is  always  with  us,  and  we  must  try  to 
save  him  and  to  save  ourselves  from  him,  if  society  itself 
is  to  be  preserved. 

Do  you  believe  in  the  death  penalty  for  murderers  ? 


State  Prison,  Windsor,  Vermont. 

The  buildings  are  not  particularly  new,  but  are  well  kept.  The  inmates 
are  allowed  considerable  liberty,  in  spite  of  the  barred  windows.  They 
publish  a  newspaper. 

234.  Institutions  for  the  Criminal.  —  Once  it  was  the 
custom  to  treat  in  exactly  the  same  way  everybody  who 
was  sent  to  prison.  All  ages,  men  and  women  alike,  were 
thrown  into  pens  or  dungeons  that  were  not  fit  for  the 
lowest  animal,  and  given  nothing  to  do  except  meditate  on 
further  crimes. 


368 


The  State's  Burdens 


We  do  things  better  now  in  most  states  of  the  Union,  al- 
though in  some  places  there  is  still  much  to  be  desired. 
Those  who  are  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  long  terms, 
or  who  are  supposed  to  be  hardened  offenders,  are  usually 
sent  to  a  state  prison  or  penitentiary.  Younger  criminals 
are  sent  to  institutions  known  as  reformatories.  The  name 
indicates  that  those  who  go  there  are  supposed  to  be  placed 
under  influences  that  will  help  them  to  do  better ;  but  too 
often  the  deviltry  which  a  young  scamp  has  not  learned 


Massachusetts  State  Reformatory  for  Women. 
Sherborn,  Massachusetts. 


before  he  enters  he  will  be  familiar  with  before  he  graduates 
from  the  institution.  Those  who  are  held  in  prison  to  await 
trial  are  commonly  kept  in  a  county  jail,  and  those  who  are 
sentenced  to  short  terms  of  imprisonment  are  confined  in 
the  jail  or  in  an  establishment  called  a  workhouse. 

Under  the  influence  of  such  men  as  Thomas  M.  Osborne 
of  New  York,  public  interest  has  been  strongly  turned  toward 
the  improvement  of  sanitary  conditions  in  prisons  and 
toward  such"  a  treatment  of  the  inmates  as  will  not  deprive 
them  of  whatever  of  self-respect  may  remain  to  them. 
We  wish  to  give  them  every  chance  to  be  better  men  and 


Convict  Labor  369 

women  when  they  leave.  Some  believe  that  such  efforts 
may  be  too  sentimental  and  may  offer  so  many  privileges 
that  there  will  cease  to  be  any  disgrace  or  call  for  repentance 
connected  with  a  prison  sentence.  But  no  doubt  we  can 
afford  occasionally  to  make  the  opposite  kind  of  mistake 
from  that  which  we  have  been  making  for  centuries. 

235.  Convict  Labor.  —  What  the  inmate  of  a  prison  or 
reformatory  shall  do  while  he  is  there  is  a  troublesome  ques- 
tion.    To  put  him  at  almost  any  kind  of  work  is  better  than 


1 

1 

- 

tP"  4W ' 

Output  of  a  Workhouse  Factory. 
Exhibited  at  National  Charities  and  Correction  Conference,  1917. 

to  let  him  stay  in  idleness.  There  have  been  different  plans 
for  supervising  the  labor  of  prisoners  and  of  disposing  of  the 
goods  they  make.  Sometimes  the  state  has  leased  the 
services  of  its  prisoners  as  if  they  were  so  many  slaves  and 
put  them  to  work  for  the  contractor  who  would  offer  the 
best  bid  for  them.  Sometimes  the  contractor  has  simply 
obtained  their  labor  during  the  working  hours  of  the  day, 
leaving  them  for  the  rest  of  the  time  under  the  control  of 
the  state  authorities. 

More  often  the  state  itself  provides  the  machines  and  raw 
material  needed  to  make  brooms,  carpets,  chairs,  or  some- 


370  The  State's  Burdens 

thing  else,  and  sells  the  product  itself  like  any  other  manu- 
facturer. It  is  becoming  the  custom  to  credit  the  workman 
with  something  in  the  way  of  pay,  which  he  may  use  to  ob- 
tain little  extras  for  his  own  use  in  prison  or  receive  in  money 
when  he  leaves.  In  a  number  of  states  the  state  uses  the 
prison-made  goods  itself,  and  often  employs  the  convicts  at 
building  roads  or  doing  some  other  healthful  outdoor  work. 
Sometimes  the  honor  system  has  been  carried  so  far  that 
road  gangs  have  been  left  alone  for  considerable  periods  with 
nothing  but  their  own  honor  or  the  fear  of  being  caught  to 
prevent  them  from  running  away.  More  and  more  the  states 
are  locating  their  prisons  in  the  country,  where  conditions 
particularly  favor  good  health  and  relief  from  temptation. 

Labor  unions  are  strongly  opposed  to  putting  convict-made 
goods  on  the  market  along  with  those  made  outside  of  prisons. 
Do  you  think  this  attitude  is  reasonable? 

We  are  thinking  much  more  than  we  once  did  of  what  the 
convict  is  to  do  after  he  gets  out.  Formerly  when  he  left 
prison  he  was  given  a  suit  that  fitted  him  about  like  a  kimono, 
and  was  turned  out  into  the  world  with  every  phase  of  his 
appearance  suggesting  that  he  had  been  a  "  jailbird."  Few 
employers  cared  to  hire  such  laborers.  But  now  the  best 
prison  wardens  try  to  keep  in  touch  with  the  men  who  have 
left  their  care,  to  help  them  get  work,  and  to  give  them 
advice  and  counsel  at  any  time.  Private  societies  exist  also 
for  the  purpose  of  helping  the  ex-convict  to  a  job  and  a  new 
start  in  life. 

236.  Juvenile  Courts.  —  In  nothing  is  the  new  attitude 
toward  crime  more  evident  than  in  the  treatment  of  chil- 
dren who  do  wrong.  Instead  of  bringing  the  cases  of  young 
offenders  into  the  same  court  as  those  of  older  criminals, 
they  are  handled  privately  and  quietly  before  a  special 
judge  who  takes  a  personal  interest  in  this  kind  of  work. 
Special  probation  officers  investigate  the  home  life  of  the 
wayward  child,  and  they  frequently  find  that  it  is  well  for 
the  child  to  be  taken  out  of  the  control  of  his  parents.    The 


Poverty  and  Its  Causes  371 

officers  also  keep  watch  of  a  child  who,  after  being  brought 
before  the  judge,  has  been  allowed  to  go  free  under  a  prom- 
ise to  avoid  wrongdoing. 

Methods  like  this  do  wonders  to  prevent  the  child  from 
ruining  his  whole  life  by  continuing  in  bad  surroundings  or 
by  remaining  under  the  influence  of  evil  associates.  If  the 
child  who  thinks  that  nobody  cares  for  him  and  that  he  might 
just  as  well  not  try  to  make  anything  of  himself  finds  a 
judge  or  probation  officer  who  is  really  interested  in  his 
welfare,  more  often  than  not  he  will  respond  heartily  and  try 
his  best  to  earn  confidence  from  them  in  his  honesty  and 
ambition  to  make  good. 

We  are  not  certain  to  whom  should  go  the  credit  for 
starting  this  promising  improvement.  Probably  the  most 
famous  juvenile  judge  is  Ben  B.  Lindsey  of  Denver.  It  will 
not  be  long  before  most  of  the  states  adopt  this  eminently 
wise  and  practical  plan  of  preventing  crime  by  keeping  boys 
and  girls  from  becoming  criminals. 

How  much  can  be  done  by  schools,  individuals,  or  other  private 
agencies  to  help  along  this  line  ? 

237.  Poverty  and  Its  Causes.  — "  The  poor  ye  have 
always  with  you,"  said  Jesus  nearly  two  thousand  years 
ago.  Frightfully  true  were  those  words  in  the  land  where 
they  were  spoken  and  in  every  other  ancient  country.  No 
less  true  are  they  to-day.  With  all  our  fine  clothes  and 
automobiles  and  millionaires,  there  are  probably  at  least 
15,000,000  people  in  the  United  States  who  are  not  properly 
supplied  with  those  things  necessary  to  keep  them  in  sound 
health  and  simple  comfort. 

Such  a  condition  is  what  we  mean  by  the  word  "  poverty." 
One  third  of  this  group  belong  in  the  class  called  "  paupers  " 
—  that  is,  they  receive  help  in  some  form  from  the  govern- 
ment of  city  or  state.  These  are  not  all  in  public  almshouses 
— '•  only  84,000  were  found  there  when  the  census  of  1910  was 
taken.  The  rest  of  the  5,000,000  were  helped  in  their  own 
homes. 


372  The  State's  Burdens 

We  may  reasonably  ask  why  all  this  want  and  woe  exist. 
In  studying  this  interesting  but  pathetic  subject  we  find 
often  that  we  cannot  point  to  one  cause  and  say  there  is  the 
blame.  Even  with  a  single  person  several  influences  may 
have  combined  to  put  him  where  he  is  at  any  particular  time. 
It  is  possible,  however,  to  distinguish  three  general  groups 
of  causes,  which  we  may  call  physical,  individual,  and  social. 

The  physical  causes  are  those  which  are  not  due  to  any 
human  agency.  They  may  reduce  thousands  to  poverty 
for  a  little  while,  but  are  not  at  work  all  the  time.  The 
San  Francisco  earthquake  and  fire  of  1906,  the  Dayton  flood 
of  1913,  are  examples  of  great  catastrophes  which  were 
hard  in  the  extreme  while  they  lasted,  but  which  did  not 
inflict  permanent  distress  upon  any  great  number  of  the 
people  who  suffered  from  them.  A  plague  of  grasshoppers 
or  army-worms  may  make  the  farmers  in  an  entire  section 
of  the  country  feel  the  pinch  of  want  for  a  season,  but  they 
come  only  once  in  several  years. 

The  individual  causes  are  much  more  likely  to  operate 
year  after  year.  If  the  wage  earner  in  a  family  is  laid  up 
for  a  long  time  because  of  sickness  or  accident,  he  and  his 
family  are  deprived  of  his  wages  while  he  is  sick.  Then, 
in  trying  to  pay  doctor's  bills,  to  return  money  that  was 
borrowed  when  none  was  coming  in  from  work,  and  to 
catch  up  financially  with  other  families  again,  they  have 
labors  worse  than  those  of  Hercules,  for  the  strength  of  the 
worker  may  never  again  be  what  it  was  before  he  was  sick 
or  hurt. 

Some  others  are  always  poor  because  they  do  not  know  how 
to  handle  money.  When  they  get  a  cent,  they  spend  it,  per- 
haps for  some  extravagance  or  unnecessary  pleasure.  Others 
make  foolish  ventures  in  business  or  permit  themselves  to 
be  defrauded  by  a  sharper  in  a  get-rich-quick  game.  Some 
are  mentally  incompetent  to  do  anything  in  a  first-class 
manner.  And  some  poverty  is  due  just  to  plain  laziness 
or  unwillingness  to  work. 


Poverty  and  Its  Causes  373 

Bad  habits  are  also  a  prolific  cause  of  poverty.  One  who 
frequents  poolrooms  or  other  places  of  amusement  carried 
on  for  profit  and  one  who  indulges  regularly  and  extensively 
in  tobacco  or  liquor  may  use  a  large  part  of  his  entire  in- 
come on  these  unnecessary  and  usually  detrimental  objects. 
No  other  one  cause  is  to  blame  for  so  much  poverty  as  in- 
temperance. From  25  to  50  per  cent  of  all  poverty  almost 
everywhere  can  be  traced  with  some  directness  to  this  source. 


Why  Some  People  Are  Poor. 

The  social  causes  are  those  which  proceed  from  the  gen- 
eral conditions  of  life  in  a  community.  If  the  wages  paid 
are  low  and  if  the  workmen  lose  much  time  because  they  are 
at  work  for  only  a  few  hours  in  a  day  or  a  few  days  in  a 
month,  they  and  their  families  will  find  it  hard  to  get  along. 
A  change  in  the  methods  of  carrying  on  an  industry  may 
throw  thousands  out  of  work.  The  conditions  in  which 
workmen  five  may  be  unhealthful  and  produce  sickness  or 
other  evil  effects  which  in  their  turn  result  in  poverty. 
Great  misfortunes  like  a  financial  panic  or  war  bring  poverty 
in  their  wake  to  thousands  who  in  ordinary  times  are  per- 


374  The  State's  Burdens 

fectly  able  to  keep  themselves  and  those  dependent  upon 
them  in  comfort. 

Which  of  the  causes  of  poverty  appear  to  affect  your  community 
most? 

238.  Methods  of  Relief.  —  The  best  way  to  get  rid  of 
poverty  is  to  get  rid  of  the  conditions  which  cause  it,  when 
that  can  be  done.     If  wars  were  at  an  end,  if  saloons  were 


A  Salvation  Army  Dinner  for  the  Children. 

Thanksgiving  and  Christmas  are  made  memorable  for  the  poor  as  well 
as  the  rich  by  occasions  like  this. 

closed  forever,  if  slums  were  wiped  from  the  face  of  the 
earth,  much  poverty  would  disappear  along  with  them.  The 
intelligent  effort  to  relieve  poverty  gives  much  thought  to 
this  phase  of  the  problem,  instead  of  trying  merely  to  cure 
the  individual  who  is  suffering.  But  no  foresight  can  pre- 
vent an  earthquake  and  no  knowledge  that  we  now  have 
can  prevent  storms  and  grasshoppers.  In  some  conditions 
poverty  will  always  exist  to  some  degree,  and  we  shall  have 
to  try  to  make  it  less  destructive  of  health  and  happiness. 


Methods  of  Relief 


375 


Over  two  phases  of  this  problem  there  has  been  sharp  dif- 
ference of  opinion.  Should  private  individuals  or  societies 
feed  and  cure  and  clothe  the  poor,  or  should  the  municipal 
or  state  government  do  the  work?  Should  the  help  that  is 
given  be  limited  to  establishing  poorhouses  and  other  chari- 
table institutions  and  requiring  those  who  are  helped  to  live 
there,  or  should  the  poor  be  helped  in  their  own  homes? 
The  former  method  is  often  called  indoor  relief  and  the  latter 


■)  M~ 

"~!BPm  f 

63  f3 

bJ 

■j|     -ONTCiyfiup| 
Hi     the  SKIP 

!! 

m 

M 

ss 

1 

1'fffek: 

Reading  Room  in  Dawes  Hotel. 

Clean  and  cheap  lodging  is  furnished  to  men  like  these,  and  they  are 
encouraged  to  keep  above  the  "down-and-out"  class. 


outdoor  relief.  Very  likely  all  of  these  forms  of  help  will 
need  to  be  employed  to  some  extent,  for  the  conditions 
under  which  poverty  occurs  are  by  no  means  the  same  with 
every  person  or  family. 

One  thing  is  certain :  giving  aid  to  people  who  really  do 
not  need  it  may  produce  far  more  harm  than  good.  It  may 
take  away  from  them  the  energy  and  enterprise  which  all 
ought  to  have  and  impose  an  unfair  burden  on  those  who 
try  to  provide  for  their  own  needs.     Help  should  always  be 


376  The  State's  Burdens 

of  the  kind  that  is  really  needed.  If  a  family  is  starving,  it 
is  better  to  give  them  food  than  money,  lest  they  spend  some 
of  it  for  going  to  the  "movies."  If  they  are  sick,  it  is  better 
to  pay  a  doctor  to  go  and  see  them  than  to  hand  the  family 
five  or  ten  dollars. 

Long  experience  has  proved  that  the  best  results  can  be 
obtained  from  eharity  only  when  all  charitable  societies  work 
together.  That  is  why  in  many  cities  organizations  called 
Associated  Charities  or  United  Charities  are  formed,  and 
why  these  private  charitable  societies  should  work  in  har- 
mony with  city  or  state  boards  of  charities.  If  cooperative 
work  is  not  done,  the  same  individuals  or  families  may  re- 
ceive help  from  several  sources,  and  while  pretending  to  be 
poor  may  live  in  great  comfort.  At  the  same  time  worthy 
poor  people  may  be  entirely  overlooked  because  they  lack 
the  effrontery  of  others  who  put  themselves  in  the  way  of 
the  charity  workers. 

But  with  a  capable  central  organization  it  is  possible  to 
refer  each  case  to  the  organization  which  is  best  suited  to 
deal  with  it.  Investigation  can  be  made  to  determine 
whether  help  is  really  needed  and  what  kind  is  most  called 
for.  Something  can  be  accomplished,  too,  toward  helping 
a  poor  family  to  live  better,  and  perhaps  a  job  can  be  secured 
for  some  one  who  is  out  of  work. 

If  you  have  had  any  experience  with  work  done  among  the  poor, 
do  you  think  they  appreciate  it? 

239.  The  Settlement  House.  —  One  very  effective  means 
of  bringing  light  and  pleasure  and  progress  into  the  poor 
districts  of  our  large  cities  is  the  settlement  house.  This 
may  be  the  gift  of  some  wealthy  man  or  be  founded  through 
the  combined  generosity  of  many  people.  Gymnasiums, 
entertainment  halls,  choruses,  classes  in  sewing,  cooking, 
or  the  "  book  "  subjects,  are  here  offered  to  young  and  old 
alike.  Some  one  or  two  workers  generally  live  in  the  house 
all  the  time,  but  always  a  great  opportunity  is  offered  for 


Public  Charitable  Institutions  377 

voluntary  service  on  the  part  of  any  who  are  interested  in 
playing  the  "  good  Samaritan." 

Those  who  work  there  are  brought  to  understand  the  needs 
of  the  poor  as  they  could  learn  them  nowhere  else,  and  giver 
and  receiver  alike  are  helped.  Hull  House  in  Chicago, 
conducted  by  Miss  Jane  Addams,  is  perhaps  the  most 
widely  known  of  all  establishments  of  this  kind,  but  there 
are  now  nearly  500  of  them,  scattered  through  all  the  large 
cities  of  the  land. 

240.  Public  Charitable  Institutions.  —  The  town,  the  city, 
and  the  county  do  most  of  the  work  of  caring  for  the  poor 
and  unfortunate,  as  far  as  this  is  done  by  the  government. 
Most  of  the  larger  towns  in  New  England  keep  a  "  poor 
farm,"  where  the  destitute  ones  who  have  no  friends  or 
relatives  to  care  for  them  are  sent.  Cheerless  places  these 
usually  are,  though  if  a  warden  or  matron  happens  to  feel 
that  in  rendering  this  service  some  real  Christian  work  is 
being  done,  even  a  town  farm  can  be  kept  tidy  and  com- 
fortable. Outside  of  New  England  it  is  common  for  the 
county  to  take  over  this  duty,  except  that  the  large  cities 
have  an  institution  to  care  for  their  own  poor. 

It  was  once  the  custom  to  put  the  old,  the  pauper,  the 
epileptic,  the  feeble-minded,  the  insane,  and  the  lazy  all  in 
the  same  place,  and  to  treat  them  all  with  about  an  equal 
amount  of  neglect.  Such  inhumanity  has  now  almost  dis- 
appeared. At  least  insane  and  poor  are  kept  in  different 
parts  of  the  institution,  and  the  children  are  kept  away 
from  both.  Much  of  the  work  about  an  establishment  of 
this  kind  can  be  done  by  the  inmates,  even  by  the  insane. 
In  this  way  the  expenses  of  operation  are  kept  down  and 
the  inmates  themselves  are  better  off  for  having  some  health- 
ful employment. 

Children  who  have  no  homes  are  sometimes  kept  in  public 
institutions,  but  an  effort  is  often  made  to  find  real  homes 
for  them.  We  can  say  with  pleasure  that  this  is  done  much 
better  than  formerly,  and  that  it  is  unusual  now  to  find  one 


378 


The  State's  Burdens 


like  the  fj  bound  children  "  of  years  ago,  who  had  to  be 
veritable  slaves  to  some  close-fisted  farmer  or  factory  man- 
ager until  they  were  18  or  21  years  old. 

To  what  degree  of  relationship  does  any  obligation  exist  to  sup- 
port a  sick  or  poor  relative?  Do  you  think  a  child  brought  up  in 
an  orphan  asylum  gets  a  good  training  for  life? 

In  most  of  the  states  there  is  a  state  board  of  charities 
which  has  a  general  right  to  inspect  the  poorhouses   and 

hospitals  of  the  state. 
Especially  if  the  state 
maintains  them  or  gives 
money  from  the  state 
treasury  to  help  sup- 
port them,  they  must  be 
conducted  in  a  way  to 
please  the  state  board. 
To  relieve  the  poverty 
and  distress  caused  by 
loss  of  time  through  ac- 
cidents, many  states 
have  passed  workmen's  compensation  acts,  which,  as  we  have 
said,  provide  that  when  a  workman  is  injured  while  at  work 
his  employer  must  pay  him  a  certain  sum  during  the  time 
he  is  laid  off.  Special  referees  are  needed  who  consider 
claims  under  the  laws  and  decide  whether  they  are  justified. 
A  number  of  states  also  have  passed  mother's  pension 
laws.  The  principle  of  these  is  that  the  mother  who  has 
spent  her  time  and  energy  raising  her  children  should  not 
be  forced  to  go  to  the  poorhouse  in  her  old  age  or  have  her 
family  broken  up  if  she  is  unable  to  provide  for  them  all 
properly.  When  a  mother  in  such  circumstances  shows 
her  need,  she  may  get  a  small  sum  per  week  for  herself 
and  her  small  children.  General  old  age  pension  laws  and 
compulsory  insurance  acts  such  as  some  European  countries 
have,  are  frequently  proposed  in  this  country  but  have  not 
yet  been  enacted  by  any  state. 


Learning  a  Trade. 


Care  of  Dependents  379 

241.  Care  of  Dependents.  —  Before  the  beginning  of  the 
Last  century,  both  in  the  Old  World  and  in  America  very 
little  attention  was  paid  to  the  care  and  cure  of  the 
feeble-minded,  insane,  or  otherwise  helpless  persons.  Those 
whose  condition  made  them  more  or  less  violent  were 
put  into  the  common  jails  or  workhouses.  Those  who 
were  harmless  were  allowed  to  wander  aimlessly  about  as 


&  V 

!  -i"*?*'- 

■mmm^HB 

8  * 

■1 

Work  of  Insane  Patients. 

Many  of  them  have  more  than  ordinary  skill  along  certain  lines.  These 
articles  were  exhibited  at  the  National  Charities  and  Correction  Conference, 
1917. 

village  curiosities  and  the  butt  of  all  kinds  of  pranks,  eking 
out  a  miserable  existence  by  begging  or  by  other  precarious 
means. 

But  gradually  municipalities  began  to  care  for  them, 
each  one  doing  what  it  pleased.  As  time  went  on  the  work 
spread  to  the  county  and  from  the  county  to  the  state.  Now 
the  greater  part  of  the  burden  rests  upon  the  state.  Either 
the  state  owns  institutions  to  care  for  the  helpless  ones  or 
appropriates  money  from  its  treasury  to  private  institutions 
Which  are  willing  to  put  themselves  under  state  inspection 
in  return  for  the  money. 


380 


The  State's  Burdens 


Find  out  what  proceedings  are  necessary  to  put  an  insane  per- 
son in  an  asylum.  If  he  claims  to  be  sane,  can  he  do  anything 
to  secure  a  release  ?    Illustrate  from  the  case  of  Harry  Thaw. 

The  dependents  may  be  divided  into  the  poor,  the  sick, 
and  the  defectives.  The  defectives  in  turn  include  the  in- 
sane, the  feeble-minded,  the  epileptic,  the  blind,  and  the 
deaf  and  dumb. 


Choir  in  the  Perkins  Institute  for  the  Blind,  Watertown, 
Massachusetts. 


The  last  two  classes  have  only  recently  been  cared  for  by 
the  state,  but  wonders  have  been  accomplished  for  them. 
Books  with  raised  letters  for  the  blind,  and  new  methods  of 
instruction  for  the  deaf,  have  made  it  possible  for  some  of 
them  to  obtain  almost  as  much  education  and  get  almost 
as  much  pleasure  out  of  life  as  their  more  fortunate  brothers 
and  sisters. 

242.  The  Feeble-minded.  —  Most  people  have  needed 
a  long  time  to  discover  that  insane  and  feeble-minded 
people  are  not  alike  and  need  quite  different  treatment.    The 


The  Feeble-minded  381 

insane  are  those  who  once  possessed  at  least  ordinary  natural 
mental  powers,  but  through  some  affliction  have  lost  them, 
wholly  or  partly.  The  feeble-minded  never  had  normal 
mental  ability.  In  this  class  are  the  idiot,  who  never 
knows  any  more  than  a  two-year-old  baby,  the  imbecile, 
whose  talents  are  like  those  of  children  from  three  to  seven 
years  old,  and  the  moron,  whose  brains  never  get  beyond 
the  child  of  twelve. 

Careful  treatment  can  make  something  out  of  some  of 
these  defectives,  if  they  are  kept  under  proper  guardianship, 
and  insane  people  may  regain  their  senses.  But  one  thing 
we  are  sure  of  —  the  best  place  for  most  of  the  defectives 
is  in  homes  or  institutions  where  special  care  can  be  given 
to  their  needs  and  where  they  can  be  kept  from  harming 
others. 

The  studies  of  men  like  Dr.  Goddard  of  Vineland,  N.  J., 
where  such  an  institution  is  located,  prove  beyond  question 
the  curse  of  allowing  the  feeble-minded  to  live  unguarded 
like  ordinary  persons.  He  writes  of  a  Revolutionary  soldier 
whom  he  calls  Major  Kallikak.  This  man  married  twice, 
one  wife  being  of  normal  powers  and  the  other  feeble-minded. 
Of  436  descendants  from  the  normal  wife,  not  one  has  been 
.  a  defective  or  a  criminal ;  but  of  430  descendants  from  the 
feeble-minded  wife,  143  are  known  to  have  been  mentally 
defective  and  only  46  are  known  to  have  been  normal. 

In  the  schools  and  elsewhere  tests  invented  by  students 
of  psychology  are  now  frequently  employed,  and  when  a 
child  is  discovered  who  is  in  some  degree  a  defective  he  is 
at  once  placed  in  the  care  of  physicians  and  teachers  who 
try  to  give  him  the  special  care  which  he  requires.  In  the 
whole  country  it  is  estimated  that  there  are  300,000  feeble- 
minded persons,  not  one  tenth  of  whom  are  at  present 
properly  cared  for. 

See  if  you  can  find  out  about  the  "Juke"  family.  What  are  the 
Binet-Simon  tests  ?  What  is  your  state  doing  for  the  different  types 
of  dependents? 


382 


The  State's  Burdens 


243.  Tramps.  —  One  class  of  loafers  who  are  a  nuisance 
to  any  community  are  the  tramps  or  "  hoboes."  Why 
they  are  unwilling  to  earn  their  own  living  instead  of  ex- 
pecting other  people  to  support  them  is  often  a  mystery. 
They  do  not  deserve  the  care  that  the  ordinary  inmate  of  a 
public  institution  should  receive,  for  they  are  usually  strong 

physically  and  perfectly 
able  to  look  out  for 
themselves.  When  busi- 
ness conditions  are  bad, 
no  doubt  some  men  are 
forced  either  to  die  from 
starvation  or  to  steal  or 
beg  for  food,  but  thou- 
sands of  "  hoboes  "  in 
this  country  make  no 
attempt  to  get  a  job, 
glorying  in  making  the 
community  feed  them. 

How  would  you  enjoy 
their  kind  of  life? 

Most  of  them  commit 
no  serious  crimes,  but 
nevertheless  nobody 
wants  them  around. 
Constables  and  chiefs  of  police,  not  knowing  what  else  to  do, 
sometimes  just  order  them  to  move  on  to  the  next  town. 
Cleveland  and  a  few  other  places  have  made  use  of  a  mu- 
nicipal stone  quarry  or  brickyard  and  forced  the  tramps  to 
work  there  if  they  stayed  in  the  neighborhood  and  ex- 
pected anything  to  eat.  The  job  is  usually  vacant  in  a 
day  or  two. 

Is  it  wise  or  desirable  to  give  a  "hand-out"  to  the  beggar  who 
comes  to  your  kitchen  door,  or  money  to  the  blind  man  who  plays 
an  old  accordion  or  hand-organ  at  the  street  corner? 


■HBk    : 


Municipal  Lodging-house,  New  York. 


The  Liquor  Traffic  383 

244.  The  Liquoi  Traffic.  —  The  staggering  sum  of  over 
$2,000,000,000  has  been  spent  in  this  country  every  year 
for  intoxicating  liquor.  If  we  could  just  turn  that  all  into 
the  federal  treasury  for  a  year  we  could  wipe  out  the  national 
debt,  as  it  was  in  1916,  leave  a  very  comfortable  surplus  in 
the  treasury  to  go  ahead  with,  and  be  infinitely  better  off 
physically  and  morally.  We  spent  almost  four  times  as 
much  for  liquor  as  on  all  the  public  schools  of  the  country. 
Without  it  our  expenses  for  jails,  poorhouses,  insane  asylums, 
and  other  such  institutions  would  be  far  less,  homes  would 
be  happier,  children  better  cared  for,  and  everything  good 
uplifted  beyond  reckoning. 

Why  did  we  not  get  rid  of  it?  Because  some  people  were 
in  the  habit  of  drinking  and  would  not  stop.  Because  other 
people  say  that  it  is  a  man's  own  business  and  not  the  state's 
whether  he  drinks  or  not.  Because  money  paid  for  saloon 
licenses  went  into  the  treasury  of  city,  county,  state,  and 
nation  and  made  some  people  believe  that  our  government 
would  go  bankrupt  without  it.  Because  the  liquor  interests 
were  solidly  banded  together  and  well  organized.  They 
knew  what  they  wanted,  what  candidates  would  support 
their  policies,  and  they  wasted  no  votes  in  an  election. 

Yet  every  intelligent  person,  even  if  he  uses  or  sells  in- 
toxicating liquor,  knows  what  a  curse  the  unrestricted  sale 
of  it  would  be.  In  some  sections  even  the  liquor  dealers  of 
the  better  type  cooperated  with  the  officials  in  trying  to  close 
up  saloons  which  broke  the  law.  But  such  cases  were  all  too 
rare  and  generally  came  about  through  the  fear  that  some- 
thing worse  would  happen  to  the  business  if  it  did  not  clean 
itself  up  at  least  partly. 

245.  Means  of  Control.  —  Four  methods  of  keeping  the 
liquor  business  under  control  of  the  state  have  been  tried  in 
this  country,  and  even  those  who  were  opposed  to  the  liquor 
business  have  not  always  agreed  as  to  which  is  the  best. 

(1)  The  dispensary  system,  or  Gothenburg  system,  has 
been  much  used  in  the  Scandinavian  peninsula,  and  appears 


384  The  State's  Burdens 

to  have  had  good  results  there.  Only  one  state  in  our  union, 
however,  has  tried  it  —  South  Carolina  —  and  that  state 
has  given  it  up.  The  idea  is  that  all  liquor  shall  be  sold  only 
in  bottles  at  places  carried  on  by  an  agent  of  the  state  itself. 

The  places  for  its  sale  are  absolutely  without  adornment 
or  attractiveness,  and  therefore  are  less  likely  to  be  used  for 
loafing-places,  for  no  liquor  may  be  drunk  on  the  premises. 
But  this  plan  makes  the  state  itself  a  partner  in  the  business 
and  a  sharer  of  its  profits.  Such  a  state  of  affairs  is  un- 
pleasant to  the  tender  conscience  of  many.  Besides,  it  is 
only  a  shade  better  for  a  man  to  get  drunk  at  home  than  in 
a  place  where  he  can  be  in  the  society  of  others  like  himself. 

(2)  The  most  common  method  of  regulation  was  that  of 
the  license  system.  Only  persons  having  a  license  from  the 
government  were  permitted  to  engage  in  the  business,  and 
if  the  fee  was  rather  high  the  number  of  saloons  would  be 
cut  down.  Some  states  forbade  more  than  one  saloon  to 
each  500  or  1000  persons  in  a  city  or  township,  while  others 
gave  a  license  to  anybody  who  would  pay  the  fee. 

A  bad  feature  of  this  plan  was  that  voters  got  into  the 
notion  that  this  license  money  was  needed  to  carry  on  the 
government,  and  were  not  willing  to  do  anything  to  reduce 

the  sale  of  liquor  for 


Shall  license  be  granted  for  sale  of 
intoxicating  liquors  in  this  town  ? 
Yes  I      I  No  I — | 

Shall  licenses  of  the  fifth  class  be 
granted  in  this  town  ? 

Yes  Q  No  p 

The  voter  shall  make  a  cross  (X) 
against  the  answer  he  desires  to  give. 


fear  of  losing  revenue. 

The  fact  is,  of  course, 

that  the  extra  police, 

court  trials,  care  of  poor 

and  the  like,  caused  by 

the  licensed  saloon,  far 

more    than   offset   the 

revenue  from  licenses. 
A  Local  Option  Ballot.  (3)     Loml    opti(m    ig 

the  name  given  to  the  plan  of  allowing  each  township  and 
city,  or  each  county,  to  decide  by  popular  vote  whether  sa- 
loons shall  be  licensed  within  its  limits.  Some  states,  as 
Massachusetts  and  Vermont,  voted  in  this  way  every  year. 


Conclusions  About  the  Liquor  Problem     385 

This  has  the  advantage  of  making  each  community  re- 
sponsible for  its  own  liquor  policy,  and  if  a  city  votes  against 
the  saloon,  the  laws  are  likely  to  be  better  enforced  than 
if  the  "  dry  "  policy  was  forced  on  the  community  by  the 
vote  of  other  sections  of  the  state.  It  was  frequently  in- 
effective, however,  because  of  the  ease  with  which  a  man 
could  take  a  trolley  ride  to  the  next  town  or  county  and 
get  drunk  or  bring  home  all  he  wanted  to  carry. 

(4)  Prohibition  is  the  term  commonly  used  when  a  state 
refuses  to  allow  saloons  to  be  opened  anywhere  within  its 
borders.  Except  on  the  borders  of  the  state,  it  is  not  open 
to  the  objection  offered  against  the  local  option  plan,  and 
removes  the  corrupting  influence  of  depending  upon  license 
money  for  revenue. 

It  is  sometimes  hard  to  enforce  in  large  cities  or  in  com- 
munities where  a  large  part  of  the  people  want  to  use  liquor 
as  a  beverage.  But  it  removes  the  temptation  connected 
with  the  open  saloon,  and  the  violence  with  which  the 
liquor  dealers  always  opposed  prohibition  shows  that  it 
must  interfere  seriously  with  the  amount  that  is  sold.  A 
recent  law  of  Congress  which  forbade  the  shipment  of  liquor 
for  drinking  purposes  into  a  prohibition  state  helped  greatly 
to  make  such  a  state  "  bone  dry  "  in  reality. 

Why  are  country  communities  usually  more  favorable  to  pro- 
hibition than  cities? 

246.  General  Results  and  Conclusions  about  the  Liquor 
Problem.  —  A  century  ago  almost  everybody  drank  liquor 
to  some  extent.  Now  by  an  amendment  to  the  national 
Constitution  we  have  made  our  country  officially  "  dry," 
and  gained  the  distinction  of  being  the  first  nation  to  try 
this  self -discipline.  The  state  of  Maine  was  the  first  to 
adopt  state-wide  prohibition,  about  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  and  several  other  northern  states  tried 
prohibition  for  a  while  in  the  same  period.  It  was  a  kind 
of  moral  reform  that  swept  over  the  country  along  with  the 
sentiment  against  slavery. 


386  The  State's  Burdens 

Gradually,  as  more  immigrants  entered  the  country,  and 
because  the  prohibition  laws  were  not  very  well  enforced 
and  the  moral  sentiment  of  the  North  became  less  keen,  most 
of  the  states  which  had  adopted  prohibition  abandoned  it. 
Only  Maine  held  to  it  continuously.  Among  the  other 
states  of  the  Union  Kansas  is  next  to  Maine  in  the  length 
of  time  it  has  had  prohibition. 

In  the  early  years  of  the  present  century  a  new  prohibition 
movement  got  under  way,  which  ultimately  became  a  tidal 
wave  in  its  sweep  and  steadiness.  It  began  in  the  South, 
and  finally  embraced  every  state  south  of  the  Potomac 
and  east  of  the  Mississippi.  The  far  West  and  the  middle 
West  also  fell  into  the  prohibition  line  with  surprising  eager- 
ness. 

Thirty-four  states  and,  in  addition,  Alaska  and  Porto 
Rico  had,  or  were  soon  to  become  legally  "  dry  "  by  their 
own  vote  at  the  time  the  national  amendment  was  ratified. 
Sometimes  this  was  done  simply  by  law,  either  by  the 
legislature  alone  or  with  the  approval  of  a  popular  referen- 
dum. But  the  tendency  was  to  strengthen  such  an  act  by 
putting  prohibition  into  the  state  constitution  soon  after- 
ward. Saloons  were  also  abolished  in  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia and  Hawaii  by  act  of  Congress. 

The  new  prohibition  movement  has  not  been  founded  on 
sentiment  so  much  as  the  one  of  60  and  70  years  ago,  although 
a  moral  impulse  is  by  no  means  lacking.  But  business 
houses  and  the  great  railroads  in  all  parts  of  the  country 
have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  as  a  business  proposition 
the  saloon  does  not  pay,  and  that  conviction  has  played  a 
mighty  part  in  the  great  reform. 

To  remove  the  objection  that  persons  who  have  invested 
money  in  the  liquor  business  should  not  lose  it  all  by  a  sudden 
abolition  of  it,  the  plan  was  frequently  followed  of  allowing 
a  year  or  two  to  pass  between  the  adoption  of  prohibition 
and  the  time  when  it  should  take  effect.  Breweries  could 
then  be  turned  into  ice  factories,  for  example,  and  the 


Conclusions  About  the  Liquor  Problem     387 

ordinary  saloon-keeper  could  easily  plan  to  take  up  some 
other  business. 

Since  there  would  always  be  trouble  about  enforcing  prohi- 
bition as  long  as  some  states  continued  to  produce  liquor 
generously,  the  friends  of  prohibition  next  set  to  work  for  the 
adoption  of  a  prohibition  amendment  to  the  constitution 
of  the  United  States.  Spurred  by  sentiment  aroused  by  the 
Great  War,  Congress  passed  laws  under  which  the  use  of 
grain  in  making  distilled  liquors  and  beer  was  forbidden,  and 
in  December,  1917,  agreed  to  lay  a  constitutional  amendment 
before  the  states,  establishing  prohibition  throughout  the 
country.  It  carried  the  proviso  that  it  must  be  ratified 
within  seven  years  or  else  it  would  not  go  into  effect.  The 
response  of  the  states  was  almost  startling.  In  a  little  over 
a  year  the  work  was  done,  and  in  January,  1919,  the  proc- 
lamation was  issued  from  the  office  of  the  Secretary  of  State 
announcing  that  the  necessary  number  of  state  legislatures 
had  approved  the  amendment. 

Next  comes  the  problem  of  enforcement.  The  amend- 
ment gives  "  concurrent  power  "  to  Congress  and  the  states 
for  this  purpose.  Since  the  prohibition  applies  only  to  the 
use  of  liquor  as  a  beverage,  evasions  of  the  restriction  are 
likely  to  be  frequent  for  a  time.  No  sensible  person  would 
expect  that  all  harmful  use  of  liquor  could  immediately  be 
stopped.  But  it  is  the  almost  invariable  experience  that 
when  the  saloons  close  arrests  for  drunkenness  and  most 
other  crimes  diminish  to  a  remarkable  degree.  Jails 
and  poorhouses  become  almost  or  quite  ■  empty.  Savings 
bank  deposits  increase,  bills  are  more  promptly  paid,  and 
more  money  is  spent  for  the  comforts  and  conveniences 
which  help  rather  than  hurt  the  users.  One  must  think 
poorly  of  the  American  people  who  would  suggest,  as  some 
have  done,  that  the  number  of  "  dope-fiends  "  would  alarm- 
ingly increase  or  that  men  would  long  refuse  to  work  because 
they  could  not  get  liquor. 

It  is  true  that  the  national  government,  as  well  as  several 


388  The  State's  Burdens 

states,  counties,  and  cities,  received  revenue  from  liquor 
licenses.  But  in  the  readjustment  of  our  tax  systems  made 
necessary  by  the  enormous  expenses  of  the  Great  War,  this 
matter  will  probably  adjust  itself  without  causing  any 
serious  difficulties.  The  saving  in  the  expense  of  law- 
enforcement  and  the  maintenance  of  public  institutions  is 
of  itself  no  small  item.  That  the  United  States  has  so 
speedily  taken  this  step  toward  making  this  a  cleaner  and 
better  country  is  an  accomplishment  of  which  we  may  well 
be  proud. 

QUESTIONS 

Distinguish  the  difference  between  sin,  vice,  and  crime.  Classify 
crimes  with  reference  to  degree  and  to  nature.  Give  examples 
and  definitions  under  each  class.  How  many  criminals  are  there 
in  the  country? 

What  are  the  principal  causes  of  crime?  Who  deserves  more 
blame  when  crime  occurs,  the  criminal  or  the  community  in  which 
he  lives?  What  is  the  proper  motive  that  should  control  us  in 
dealing  with  law-breakers?  What  are  some  of  the  ways  by  which 
we  secure  for  the  criminal  the  chance  to  lead  a  better  life?  If 
we  are  to  prevent  crime,  what  else  than  the  criminal  needs  atten- 
tion? 

What  kinds  of  institutions  are  criminals  placed  in?  What  should 
they  be  allowed  or  required  to  do  while  there?  Explain  differ- 
ent forms  of  convict  labor.  Which  of  these  do  you  consider  to  be 
desirable  ?  What  can  be  done  to  help  discharged  prisoners  ?  What 
are  juvenile  courts?     What  are  the  reasons  for  their  existence? 

How  many  paupers  and  poor  people  could  be  found  in  the 
United  States  to-day?  How  far-reaching  is  the  problem  of  pov- 
erty? Classify  the  causes  which  produce  it?  As  with  crime, 
which  is  chiefly  responsible,  the  individual  or  society  in  general? 
What  causes  are  most  common? 

Distinguish  between  indoor  and  outdoor  relief.  Which  is 
better?  Why  are  organizations  like  the  Associated  Charities 
desirable?  Describe  the  work  of  the  settlement  house.  Can 
poverty  be  prevented?  Why?  What  is  a  "poor  farm"?  How 
should  the  inmates  be  cared  for?  On  what  principle  do  "work- 
men's compensation"  and  "mothers'  pension"  acts  rest?  How 
should  tramps  be  dealt  with?  How  far  should  state  governments 
take  any  responsibility  for  the  care  of  the  poor  ? 


Special  Topics  389 

Distinguish  between  delinquents,  dependents,  and  defectives. 
What  is  the  difference  between  the  insane  and  the  feeble-minded? 
Contrast  the  treatment  formerly  given  to  these  people  with  that 
which  they  receive  to-day.  Why  is  it  important  that  they  should 
receive  special  care  ? 

Why  did  our  national  government  and  some  of  our  states  license 
the  sale  of  liquor?  Why  was  the  country  worse  off  for  having 
saloons?  What  was  there  about  the  business  that  made  it  any 
more  necessary  to  control  than  other  businesses?  Explain  four 
methods  which  have  been  used  in  the  United  States  to  restrain  the 
liquor  business.  Compare  the  extent  of  the  use  of  liquor  years 
ago  and  to-day.  Sketch  the  history  of  the  prohibition  movement 
in  this  country.  Trace  the  steps  by  which  a  "dry"  nation  was 
finally  obtained.  Do  you  anticipate  any  difficulties  in  the  enforce- 
ment of  prohibition? 

SPECIAL   TOPICS 

The  Work  of  Thomas  M.  Osborne. 

Resolved,  that  the  honor  system  should  be  introduced  in  all 
institutions  for  criminals. 

Judge  Lindsey  and  the  Juvenile  Court.  (If  your  community  has 
one,  study  its  work.) 

A  Modern  Prison. 

The  Maintenance  and  Operation  of  the  Poorhouse.  (Study  your 
own  if  possible.) 

Resolved,  that  the  moving-picture  theatre  does  more  harm  than 
good. 

Experiences  in  Social  Service  Work. 

The  Training  of  the  Blind,  the  Deaf,  and  the  Dumb. 

The  Care  of  the  Insane  and  the  Feeble-minded. 

The  Effect  of  the  Great  War  on  the  Liquor  Business. 

The  Anti-Saloon  League. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

AMERICA,  THE   "MELTING  POT" 


America!  thou  half-brother  of  the  world! 

With  something  good  and  bad  from  every  land.  —  Bailey. 

Who  serves  his  country  well  has  no  need  of  ancestors.  —  Voltaire. 


247.  Where  Did  We  Come  From  ?  —  A  noted  writer  once 
referred  to  the  United  States  as  the  melting  pot  into  which 
all  races  and  tongues  in  the  world  are  cast,  so  that  out  of 
them  might  be  made  a  new  nation,  with  qualities  derived 
from  all  who  form  a  part  of  it.  Some  one  may  remark,  too, 
that  with  the  exception  of  the  Indian,  we  are  all  immigrants, 
for  our  ancestors  came  from  some  part  of  Europe. 

Very  true  that  is,  yet  it  may  be  misleading.  There  is  a 
great  difference  between  a  group  of  immigrants  who  know 
the  laws  and  customs  and  speak  the  language  of  the  people 
with  whom  they  associate,  and  the  immigrants  who  are  used 
to  such  different  ideas,  methods  of  life,  and  habits  that  they 
cannot  for  some  time  form  a  part  of  the  community  into 
which  they  come. 

The  people  who  settled  along  the  Atlantic  coast  in  colonial 
days  were  enough  alike  in  language,  customs,  and  ideals,  so 
that  there  was  little  difficulty  in  their  forming  one  social 
group.  For  over  half  a  century  after  the  Revolution  the 
number  of  immigrants  was  very  small.  The  wonderful 
westward  expansion  that  went  on  so  rapidly  during  that  time 
was  a  movement  of  Americans  from  one  part  to  another  of 
their  own  country. 

390 


Where  Did  We  Come  From? 


391 


But  toward  the  middle  of  the  last  century  a  tremendous 
new  movement  started.  The  failure  for  some  years  of  the 
potato  crop  in  Ireland  and  the  downfall  of  the  movement  for 
liberal  government  in  Germany,  along  with  other  causes, 
induced  many  hundreds  of  thousands  of  people  from  those 
countries  to  come  to  the  United  States  in  the  expectation  of 
bettering  their  conditions.  A  little  later  an  extensive  immi- 
gration from  Norway  and  Sweden  took  place. 


Courtesy  of  National  Child  Labor  Committee 

A.N  Immigrant  Family  in  the  Beet  Fields  of  Colorado. 
Observe  the  sod  house  in  which  they  live. 


Often  the  term,  "  the  old  immigration/'  is  used  to  distin- 
guish this  wave  of  immigrants  from  "  the  new  immigration  " 
of  the  last  few  decades.  The  old  immigrants,  as  you  observe, 
all  came  from  northern  or  western  Europe.  Whether  from 
England,  Ireland,  Germany,  Scandinavia,  or  France,  most 
of  them  fitted  readily  into  the  life  and  customs  of  America. . 

But  the  new  immigration  is  different.  It  comes  largely 
from  southern  Italy,  Austria,  Poland,  and  Russia,  from 
countries  whose  standard  of  living  is  far  below  that  of  the 
United  States.    The  immigrants  work  for  less  than  native 


392  America,  the  "Melting  Pot" 

Americans,  can  live  on  decently ;  they  are  clannish  and  stay 
by  themselves ;  they  have  no  idea  of  what  democracy  and 
self-government  mean ;  and  many  of  them  have  no  intention 
of  staying  here  permanently,  but  plan  to  go  back  after  a 
few  years  and  live  at  ease  the  rest  of  their  days.  The  out- 
break of  the  great  European  war  halted  this  movement, 
and  only  time  can  tell  whether  it  will  be  resumed  in  equal 
numbers. 

In  1910  one  person  in  seven  living  in  the  United  States 
was  born  abroad.  More  of  these  came  from  Germany  than 
from  any  other  one  country,  but  already  Russia  and  Austria 
have  sent  so  many  that  they  rank  second  and  third.  Taking 
the  immigrants  in  recent  years,  we  find  that  75  per  cent  of 
the  whole  number  were  from  southern  and  eastern  Europe. 

Trace  your  own  "family  tree"  as  far  back  as  you  can.  Let  the 
teacher  add  these  together  and  see  how  large  a  percentage  of  each 
nationality  is  represented  in  your  class  for  three  or  four  generations 
back. 

248.  Why  Do  They  Come  ?  —  In  the  days  when  America 
was  new,  there  were  three  main  reasons  that  caused  men  and 
women  to  try  their  fortunes  in  the  New  World  —  poor  oppor- 
tunities for  earning  a  living,  tyranny  of  rulers,  and  religious 
persecution.  To-day,  just  as  three  hundred  years  ago,  the 
same  impulses  are  at  work.  The  wages  paid  everywhere  in 
Europe  are  much  lower  than  in  this  country.  The  laborer 
over  there  may  be  living  in  fair  comfort,  for  everything  costs 
less  than  it  does  here,  but  when  he  is  told  that  he  can  get  as 
much  in  two  days  here  as  in  a  week  in  his  own  land,  he 
thinks  this  must  be  next  door  to  paradise.  His  friends  over 
here  write  to  him  such  encouraging  stories  that  he  wants  to 
join  them,  and  the  agents  of  the  steamship  companies,  who 
want  his  passage  money,  picture  America  so  brilliantly  as  the 
land  of  opportunity  that  he  finally  comes. 

Disillusioned?  Yes,  indeed,  time  after  time,  but  enough 
of  the  immigrants  do  get  what  seem  to  them  big  wages 
so  that  the  tale  of  America's  waiting  wealth  continues  to 


Where  Do  They  Go? 


393 


be  told  as  glowingly  as  ever.  A  few  years  ago  it  was  common 
for  employers  in  this  country  who  wanted  to  employ  large 
numbers  of  cheap  laborers  to  hire  them  in  masses  in  the  Old 
World  and  pay  their  passage  over  here.  Our  laws  now  forbid 
this  practice,  but  sometimes  they  are  evaded. 

The  chief  substitute  for  the  political  tyranny  of  former 
centuries  has  been  the  compulsory  military  service  required 
on  the  continent  of  Europe.     This  cause  has  been  more 


A  Kind  of  Work  for  Which  Immigrant  Labor  is  Commonly  Used. 


effective  in  causing  emigration  from  Germany  and  Italy  than 
elsewhere,  and  it  has  been  the  motive  that  brought  many  to 
the  United  States. 

Religious  persecution  is  less  common  to-day  than  ever 
before  in  history,  but  at  least  it  has  been  one  reason  why  so 
many  Russian  Jews  have  sought  the  freedom  of  America. 

249.  Where  Do  They  Go  ?  —  If  we  could  take  our  immi- 
grants to  the  farm  lands  that  even  yet  are  waiting  for  the 
right  people  to  use  them,  and  could  distribute  them  over  the 
country   somewhat   equally  in    all    sections,  our   problem 


394 


America,  the  "Melting  Pot" 


would  be  greatly  simplified.  But  when  the  first  great  immi- 
gration movement  came,  there  was  no  chance  to  turn  it 
toward  the  South,  for  there  the  work  that  the  immigrant 
could  do  was  being  done  by  the  negro  slave. 

And  so  the  immigrant  stayed  in  the  North,  and  the  greater 
part  in  the  northern  cities.  Many  Germans  took  up  farm- 
ing, it  is  true,  and  numerous  Scandinavians  have  gone  to  the 
wheat  fields  of  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas,  but  few  of  the 
Irish  did  so  and  almost  none  of  the  "  new  immigrants." 


Proportion  of  Foreign  Elements  in  the  States. 


And  even  now  the  South  takes  hardly  any  foreigners.  No 
section  of  the  country  has  so  nearly  a  pure  native  American 
population  as  the  southern  states  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River. 

The  East  Side  of  New  York,  already  thickly  packed, 
manages  to  absorb  a  few  more  thousands  every  year,  as  do  the 
similar  districts  in  Chicago.  The  cotton  mills  of  cities  like 
Fall  River  and  Lowell  have  taken  many  foreigners  to  Massa- 
chusetts. The  coal  mines  of  Pennsylvania  and  the  steel  and 
glass  factories  of  the  Pittsburgh  district  have  drawn  several 
hundred  thousand  Austrians,  Hungarians,  Poles,  and  Italians 


What  Happens?  395 

to  that  state.  Almost  one  person  in  three  in  Rhode 
Island,  Massachusetts,  and  New  York  is  of  foreign  birth. 
If  we  add  to  those  states  Pennsylvania,  Illinois,  and  Wis- 
consin we  shall  include  three  fourths  of  the  foreign  born 
population  of  the  country. 

How  do  the  sections  with  the  largest  native  American  popula- 
tion compare  in  prosperity  and  progress  with  other  sections?  Is 
this  condition  because  of  or  in  spite  of  the  immigrant  ? 


A  Street  on  the  East  Side  of  New  York. 

250.  What  Happens  ?  —  The  effect  of  such  crowding  into 
places  already  crowded  cannot  be  otherwise  than  harmful. 
Look  at  almost  any  list  of  cases  tried  in  a  criminal  court  in  a 
district  where  foreigners  are  at  all  numerous,  and  you  will  find 
a  proportion  of  foreign  names  far  greater  than  the  percentage 
of  foreigners  in  the  whole  population  of  the  neighborhood. 
You  will  make  the  same  observation  if  you  look  at  the  lists 
of  admissions  to  poorhouses  and  insane  asylums.  If  the 
foreigner  becomes  a  voter  he  may  easily  be  swayed  by  appeals 
to  prejudice  and  by  the  corrupt  use  of  money.  The  propor- 
tion of  persons  who  cannot  read  and  write  among  the  foreign- 
born  of  the  new  immigration  is  very  high. 

The  tendency  of  these  immigrants  to  flock  by  themselves 


396 


America,  the  "Melting  Pot" 


makes  difficult  the  efforts  of  Americans  who  wish  to  im- 
prove the  conditions  of  the  foreigner,  and  tends  to  make 
new  lines  of  social  distinction.  Very  likely  these  unpleasant 
conditions  have  not  all  come  about  because  the  foreigner 
is  a  foreigner,  but  they  are  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  so 
many  times  he  tries  to  associate  only  with  people  of  his  own 
race  and  insists  on  living  in  conditions  below  the  American 
standard. 


Street  Scene  in  the  North  End  of  Boston. 

261.  What  Shall  We  Do  About  It?  —  Some  experiences  of 
Americans  after  the  Great  War  in  Europe  broke  out  came  as  a 
sudden  shock.  We  found  that  some  of  the  people  who  were 
foreign  born  or  were  of  recent  foreign  ancestry  were  not 
nearly  so  completely  Americanized  as  we  thought.  Even 
among  the  more  intelligent  portion  of  our  foreign-born  people 
there  were  signs  that  the  interests  of  the  fatherland  were  more 
important  to  them  than  the  interests  of  the  United  States, 
and  that  they  wanted  this  country  to  direct  its  foreign  policy 
solely  with  the  view  of  benefiting  the  nations  with  whom  they 
sympathized.    As  a  result  new  efforts  to  teach  the  foreigners 


What  Shall  We  Do  About  It? 


397 


what  American  ideals  stand  for  and  to  help  them  to  put 
"  America  first  "  have  been  put  forth. 

A  favorite  proposition  among  those  who  see  the  evils 
resulting  from  immigration  has  been  to  limit  it  by  requiring 
that  the  immigrant  should  be  able  to  read.  Our  laws  before 
1917  excluded  the  feeble-minded,  the  insane,  and  those  suf- 
fering from  any  objectionable  disease ;  those  who  have  com- 


VOLUNTEER  FLEET.  ,        JL 

INSPECTION  CARD',         ^p/ 

Immigrants  and  Steerage  (Passengers. 

Port  of  departure,  LIBAV.  r  Date  of  departure:  a 

Name  of  ship,     ^    -      W& *  .pA^OtA  MO/ 

Nameoflniniisrrant  £u6&d *&*<*-£<.     I^Kt  residence  ^/^C^t^A' 

i         Inspected  and  pissed  at 


surgeon  u ft  agent  prior  to  ot  alter  srrtbarka 

No.  on  chip's  list  or  manifest, 


>n\p  of  Consular 
,  tkU  Office* 
ft^e,  %fr>«ji:-3  tjpl*  iiHed  m  by 

ShipXiAst  yn.mtnyilst 


'^5^tl 


||  ^'*>  ^  JW/^pte^^ 


^^^22 


__...     .  J! 


Immigrant's  Inspection  Card. 

This  card  was  obtained  by  the  immigrant  at  the  port  in  Russia  from 
which  he  sailed.  The  stamp  of  the  Bureau  at  New  York  does  not  show 
in  this  copy.     On  the  reverse  of  this  card  was  a  certificate  of  vaccination. 


mitted  any  serious  crime ;  paupers,  beggars,  and  other  per- 
sons likely  to  be  a  public  charge ;  polygamists,  anarchists, 
and  persons  intending  to  engage  in  immoral  practices ;  and 
laborers  brought  under  contract  made  in  foreign  countries. 
A  tax  of  four  dollars  for  each  immigrant  is  collected.  Three 
Presidents,  Cleveland,  Taft,  and  Wilson,  vetoed  bills  that 
prescribed  a  reading  test,  but  at  last  such  a  bill  was  passed 
over  the  President's  veto  by  Congress  in  1917.    After  the 


398 


America,  the  "Melting  Pot 


Great  War  a  new  rush  of  Europeans  came  in  such  throngs 
that  Congress  seriously  considered  closing  our  ports  entirely 
to  immigrants,  except  relatives  of  those  already  here.  Some 
means  of  limitation  seems  positively  necessary. 

What  do  you  think  of  the  reading  test?  Can  you  give  the  rea- 
sons which  any  one  of  the  three  Presidents  assigned  for  their  vetoes 
of  the  various  bills  requiring  this  test? 

252.  The  Yellow  Man.  —  If  all  our  immigrants  were  white 
people,  we  should  not  worry  quite  so  much  as  we  do.    But  on 

the  Pacific  coast,  chiefly 
in  California,  there  are 
nearly  75,000  each  of 
Chinamen  and  Japanese. 
They  are  willing  to  live 
on  much  less  than  the 
American  thinks  he  can 
live  on,  and  they  will 
work  for  low  wages  at 
jobs  which  otherwise 
would  be  given  to  white 
laborers  with  better  pay. 
The  Japanese  are  es- 
pecially good  business 
men,  too,  and  will  make 
money  at  gardening  and 
other  occupations  where 
the  white  man  cannot. 

Very  likely  some  of  the 
ill  feeling  of  the  Cali- 
forrnan     laboring     men 


Scene  in  New  York's  Chinatown. 

Chinatowns  "  in  all  our  great  cities  are 
largely  Americanized. 


toward  the  Asiatics  is  due  to  prejudice  against  them  because 
their  skins  are  yellow,  but  there  is  also  an  honest  fear  that 
the  cheap  labor  of  the  foreigners  will  leave  no  work  for  the 
white  laborer  at  wages  large  enough  for  him  to  live  on. 
For  these  reasons  we  have  made  treaties  with  China  which 


The  Black  Man  399 

allow  us  to  keep  Chinese  laborers  from  coming  to  the  United 
States  at  all.  We  have  an  agreement  with  Japan  also  by 
which  the  Japanese  government  refuses  to  give  passports 
to  laborers  wishing  to  come  to  the  United  States.  To  keep 
down  the  ambitious  Japanese  the  city  of  San  Francisco  tried 
to  exclude  Japanese  from  schools  which  white  children 
attended,  and  the  state  of  California  passed  laws  intended  to 
prevent  the  Japanese  from  becoming  the  owners  of  land  in  the 
state.  Both  of  these  undertakings  were  deeply  resented  by 
the  Japanese,  but  the  difficulty  was  smoothed  over,  for  a  while 
at  least. 

Some  people  refer  to  China  and  Japan  as  "  the  yellow 
peril,' '  and  think  that  some  day  those  two  nations  will  engage 
in  a  great  war  with  the  United  States  and  other  white  nations 
for  the  mastery  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  perhaps  of  the  world. 
But  certainly  nothing  more  has  been  done  by  any  Japanese 
to  stir  up  ill  feeling  toward  this  country  than  some  American 
newspapers  have  done  to  make  us  distrust  the  Japanese. 
It  ought  to  be  our  effort  to  promote  good  will  and  mutual 
understanding  with  the  bright  little  men  of  the  Orient  who 
have  made  so  much  of  themselves  in  a  half  century,  and  to 
avoid  giving  them  any  cause  for  offense. 

Can  a  Chinese  or  Japanese  vote  in  this  country  ? 

253.  The  Black  Man.  —  But  we  have  another  color  ques- 
tion too,  and  have  had  it  for  300  years.  The  black  man  did 
not  come  here  of  his  own  accord  and  has  not  fused  satis- 
factorily in  the  great  melting  pot.  For  nearly  two  and  a 
half  centuries  after  the  first  slaves  were  brought  to  the  "  Old 
Dominion/ '  most  of  the  negroes  were  held  in  bondage.  It  is 
not  strange  that  when  they  were  set  free  they  wanted  at  first 
to  be  treated  on  an  equality  with  the  whites,  socially  and 
every  other  way,  and  that  the  white  people  of  the  South  were 
equally  determined  not  to  treat  them  as  equals. 

To-day  this  attitude  has  given  place,  both  North  and 
South,  to  the  feeling  that  it  is  best  for  both  races  that  they 


400  America,  the  "Melting  Pot" 

keep  apart,  as  much  as  possible,  in  social  and  business  matters. 
Led  by  such  men  as  Booker  T.  Washington,  the  negroes 
generally  believe  that  they  should  try  to  develop  themselves 
to  the  best  of  their  ability  as  negroes,  rather  than  to  expect 
to  mingle  with  the  whites  on  a  basis  of  equality. 

In  the  North  the  negroes  usually  attend  the  same  schools 
and  colleges  with  the  whites  and  no  distinction  is  made  by  law 
between  them.     But  in  the  South  they  have  separate  schools, 


Courtesy  of  Tuslegee  Institute 

Buildings  and  Grounds,  Tuskegee  Institute,  Alabama. 

Booker  T.  Washington  founded  this  school  and  was  for  many  years  its 
president.  It  has  rendered  valuable  service  to  the  colored  people  of  the 
South. 

separate  cars  ("  Jim  Crow  "  cars,  they  are  often  called),  and 
separate  hotels,  and  any  attempt  by  a  negro  to  put  himself 
on  a  plane  with  the  white  man  receives  harsh  treatment. 
Nevertheless  the  negro  has  made  very  great  progress  in  late 
years.  Some  negro  lawyers,  physicians,  business  men,  and 
educators,  have  done  remarkably  well. 

Of  one  thing  the  southern  white  man  is  absolutely  sure  — 
the  negro  shall  not  control  politics.  The  days  of  reconstruc- 
tion after  the  Civil  War  are  bitter  memories  to  the  South. 


The  Black  Man 


401 


The  negroes,  suddenly  given  the  ballot,  were  elected  to  offices 
which  they  were  absolutely  unfit  to  hold.  Directed  by 
northern  white  men  they  plunged  the  South  into  all  kinds 
of  extravagance  and  bad  government. 

Some  of  these  northern  white  men  were  honest,  and  when 
the  Republican  party  leaders  in  the  North  tried  to  keep  the 
negro  governments  in  office  by  the  use  of  federal  troops,  they 
thought  they  were  only  doing  justice  to  the  black  man. 


Courtesy  of  Twtegee  Institute 

Woodworking  Department,  Tuskegee  Institute,  Alabama. 

But  it  was  a  bad  mistake  politically.  The  great  mass  of 
southern  white  men  went  solidly  into  the  Democratic  party, 
and  even  to-day  they  vote  the  Democratic  ticket  with  such 
uniformity  that  we  speak  of  the  "  Solid  South." 

They  have  very  largely  succeeded  in  getting  rid  of  the  negro 
as  a  voter,  too.  They  do  this  partly  by  requiring  voters  to 
be  able  to  read  and  write  or  to  understand  a  section  of  the 
constitution  or  to  hold  a  certain  amount  of  property.  These 
restrictions  alone  will  keep  out  many  negro  voters. 


402  America,  the  "Melting  Pot" 

Several  states  have  what  is  known  as  the  "  grandfather 
clause  "  in  their  state  constitutions.  This  is  a  provision 
saying  that  persons  who  were  voters  in  1867,  for  example, 
or  are  descended  from  persons  who  were  voters  at  that  time, 
need  not  meet  the  special  educational  or  property  require- 
ments for  voting.  Since  no  negroes  were  voters  in  those 
states  in  1867,  all  of  them  have  to  meet  the  special  require- 
ments in  order  to  vote,  but  the  poor  or  ignorant  white  man  is 
relieved  from  them.  In  most  of  the  South  the  negroes  no 
longer  try  to  vote,  feeling  that  it  is  a  waste  of  time. 

The  total  negro  population  of  the  country  is  about 
10,000,000,  an  average  of  1  in  10  of  the  whole  population. 
Their  numbers  increase  from  one  census  to  the  next,  but  the 
percentage  of  negroes  in  the  whole  population  is  slowly 
declining. 

254.  The  Red  Man.  —  At  last  we  come  to  the  original 
native  American  —  the  Indian.  In  spite  of  all  the  checkered 
history  in  which  he  has  taken  a  part  since  the  white  man  came 
to  the  New  World,  his  numbers  are  estimated  to  be  at  least 
as  great  as  when  Columbus  landed  on  San  Salvador.  The 
latest  figures  show  about  330,000  of  them  in  the  United 
States. 

Our  early  treatment  of  the  Indians  was,  as  Helen  Hunt 
Jackson  called  it,  "  A  Century  of  Dishonor."  Indians  were 
treated  as  if  they  had.  no  rights  which  any  white  man  had 
to  respect.  If  a  white  man  wanted  some  Indian  land,  he 
simply  helped  himself  to  it,  and  was  protected  by  our  "  home- 
stead "  laws  in  holding  his  title  to  it.  No  wonder  Indian 
wars  were  common  in  the  years  when  the  West  was  being 
settled. 

But  for  the  last  thirty  years  or  so  our  government  has  tried 
to  be  fair  to  them,  to  care  for  them  rather  than  to  rob  them. 
Certain  districts  have  been  set  apart  as  Indian  reservations, 
which  no  white  men  are  allowed  to  occupy.  Government 
agents  are  put  in  charge  of  the  Indian  tribes  and  are  entrusted 
with  the  duty  of  looking  out  for  their  welfare.     Schools  are 


The  Red  Man 


403 


maintained  by  the  government  for  their  benefit.  Sometimes 
Indian  lands  are  bought  and  thrown  open  for  general  settle- 
ment, but  the  Indians  are  paid  for  the  land,  instead  of  having 
it  stolen  from  them. 

When  an  Indian  or  a  tribe  leave  their  reservation  and  take 
up  homes  as  white  people  do,  they  are  treated  exactly  as 
white  men.  Their  political  and  civil  rights  then  are  the 
same  as  the  white  man's.  Some  of  the  Indians,  espe- 
cially the  tribes  now  living  in  Oklahoma,  have  shown  great 


kA_      k        -^*^.-i_  L-^-i'.*:  -.!.:-■  '.*.://  .  i 

-  -^ 

*mm*                                iH ^ 

^L^wL_: i 

WlM 

m     Hi 

0^          m  -  1 

Ojibway  Indian  Boys,  Tower,  Minnesota. 

capacity  for  progress  in  civilization.  Pure-blooded  or  half- 
blooded  Indians  have  held  seats  in  both  houses  of  Congress, 
and  no  one  thinks  of  the  race  difference  between  them  and  the 
whites  as  he  does  between  the  whites  and  the  yellow  or  black 
men.  Still  some  tribes  do  not  take  kindly  to  a  starched  shirt 
and  a  white  collar,  but  prefer  to  live  as  they  did  a  thousand 
years  ago.  The  melting  pot  cannot  make  much  use  of 
them. 


Try  to  find  the  names  of  at  least  two  yellow  men,  two  black 
men,  and  two  red  men  who  have  had  a  high  place  among  their  own 
race  in  this  country  or  have  been  related  to  us  in  some  public  way. 
Tell  something  about  their  fife  and  work. 


404  America,  the  "Melting  Pot 


QUESTIONS 

Compare  the  immigration  into  North  America,  in  numbers  and 
source,  in  the  seventeenth  century,  the  eighteenth,  the  early  nine- 
teenth, the  middle  of  the  nineteenth,  and  the  last  thirty  years. 
How  large  a  part  of  our  people  are  foreign-born  ?  Study  the  map 
and  see  where  this  foreign-born  population  is  most  numerous. 
What  explanation  can  you  give  for  what  you  observe  ? 

What  motives  brought  the  first  European  immigrants  to  the 
New  World?  Why  have  they  been  coming  in  late  years?  What 
difference  in  quality  is  observed  ?  What  is  the  effect  on  crime  and 
poverty  of  a  large  immigrant  population  ? 

What  are  the  main  features  of  our  immigration  laws  to-day? 
How  easy  do  you  suppose  it  is  for  the  average  alien  of  to-day  to 
learn  and  understand  the  ideals  of  American  citizenship  ?  Do  you 
think  America  is  in  danger  from  them?  What  would  you  recom- 
mend that  we  should  do  about  it  ? 

Explain  the  meaning  of  the  phrase  "the  yellow  peril."  In  what 
section  of  the  country,  and  why,  is  the  feeling  over  Asiatic  immi- 
gration strongest?  What  do  you  think  our  proper  policy  toward 
Japan  and  China  should  be  ? 

Give  your  opinion  of  the  best  standard  to  govern  the  relations  of 
negroes  and  white  people.  What  is  the  prevailing  policy  in  the 
South  ?  Why  does  the  southern  white  man  wish  to  keep  the  negro 
out  of  politics  ?  How  does  he  do  it  ?  What  is  the  amount  of  the 
negro  population  of  the  country  ? 

How  many  Indians  are  in  the  country?  How  were  the  Indians 
treated  by  our  country  during  the  first  part  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury? Can  you  explain  it?  What  is  the  policy  of  our  government 
toward  them  now? 

SPECIAL  TOPICS 

The  Immigrant  as  a  Worker ;  the  Immigrant  as  a  Voter ;  the 
Immigrant  as  a  Social  Factor. 

Resolved,  that  a  literacy  test  for  immigrants  to  the  United  States 
is  desirable. 

Are  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  a  Menace  to  the  United  States? 

Hampton  and  Tuskegee. 

Indians  in  Public  Life. 

A  Study  of  the  Moquis  and  Navajos  (or  other  tribes  in  which 
special  interest  may  be  taken). 

Americanization  Movements. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

AMEEIOAN  OOUNTET  LIFE 


When  tillage  begins,  other  arts  follow.    The  farmers  are  therefore 
the  founders  of  human  civilization.  —  Webster. 


255.  Relative  Importance  of  the  Country.  —  Why  should 
a  city  boy  or  girl  speak  of  the  brother  from  the  farm  as  a 
"  Rube  "  or  a  "  country  Jake  "?  Judging  by  the  records 
of  men  who  have  become  nationally  famous,  the  country 
product  has  by  far  the  best  chance  to  make  something  of  him- 
self. The  only  one  of  our  presidents  who  was  born  in  a  large 
city  was  Roosevelt,  but  no  one  has  ever  taken  a  greater 
interest  in  country  life  or  experienced  more  keenly  "  the  call 
of  the  wild  "  than  he.  From  the  country  has  always  come 
the  strong,  red-blooded  man  or  woman  who  could  supply 
the  steadiness,  the  nerve,  and  the  courage  which  the  city's 
idleness,  luxury,  and  vice  failed  to  provide. 

Ninety-seven  per  cent  of  the  people  of  the  United  States 
were  rural  in  1790,  though  hardly  more  than  half  are  so  rated 
to-day.  But  after  all,  thirty-five  per  cent  of  all  our  workers 
are  on  the  farm,  more  by  considerable  than  are  engaged  in 
any  other  occupation.  This  nation  cannot  live  without  the 
farmer.  The  city  cannot  raise  a  tenth  of  what  it  needs  to 
eat.  The  farm  can  do  without  the  city  much  more  easily 
than  the  city  can  do  without  the  farm.  If  the  farm  falls  into 
decay,  the  nation  is  ruined. 

256.  Unfavorable  Conditions  in  Rural  Life.  —  All  this  is 
unquestionably  true,  yet  year  by  year  the  country  boys  and 

405 


406 


American  Country  Life 


girls  have  been  making  their  way  to  the  city  to  find  fame  and 
fortune.  What  is  wrong?  Something  must  be  out  of  place, 
when  thousands  upon  thousands  every  year  leave  the  freedom 
of  the  open  country  lif  e  to  settle  in  the  already  crowded  cities 
and  never  go  back.  Perplexed  and  disturbed  by  such  queries, 
President  Roosevelt  appointed  a  Country  Life  Commission 
to  investigate  the  matter  and  make  a  report  to  the  nation. 


On  a  New  England  Abandoned  Farm. 
This  building,  once  a  dwelling  house,  is  now  used  only  for  storing  hay. 

They  and  others  who  have  looked  into  the  matter  offer  the 
following  reasons  why  so  large  a  part  of  our  rural  communities 
have  been  either  standing  still  or  going  backward. 

There  was  a  deadly  monotony  about  life.  The  men  farmed 
the  same  way  year  after  year  with  no  change  in  the  quiet 
routine  of  duties.  What  their  grandfathers  had  done,  they 
continued  to  do  and  no  more.  The  women  had  no  interest 
outside  of  their  own  homes  to  vary  their  peaceful  but  tire- 
some existence.    The  boys  and  girls  had  few  amusements. 


Unfavorable  Conditions  in  Rural  Life    407 


A  New  England  Farm  in  Winter. 


The  roads  were  their  only  playgrounds,  the  country  grocery 
store  the  only  social  center,  and  ahead  of  them  was  not  even 
the  inspiration  to  ad- 
vance which  existed  a 
century  ago;  for  then 
most  people  lived  on 
farms  and  one  had  as 
good  a  chance  as  another, 
but  now  they  seemed 
hopelessly  distanced  in 
the  race  of  life  even  be- 
fore they  entered. 

Much  sentiment  has 
been  wasted  on  "  the 
little  red  schoolhouse."  Thanks  be  that  we  had  it,  for  it 
was  far  better  than  nothing,  and  many  great  men  got  all 
their  training  there  except  what  they  picked  up  by  them- 
selves. But  a  little  red 
schoolhouse  that  was 
open  only  six  or  seven 
months  in  the  year  and 
was  presided  over  by  a 
helpless  maiden  lady  or 
school  director's  niece 
for  $25  a  month  could 
hardly  supply  the 
modern  demands  for 
education. 

The  roads  were,  nearly 
half  the  year,  unfit  for 
use.  Snow-drifted, 
muddy  to   the  wagon's 

axle,  dusty  like  the  desert 

Old  Schoolhouse  and  Burying-ground, 

New  London,  Connecticut.  ~ take  y°ur  choiCe'    But 

In   this  schoolhouse  the  Revolutionary      what  else  Could  ^U  eX" 
patriot  Nathan  Hale  once  taught.  pect  when  men  Were  al- 


408 


American  Country  Life 


lowed  to  "  work  out  "  their  taxes  by  putting  in  time  on 
fixing  the  roads? 

Even  the  church,  the  bulwark  of  the  rural  community  of 
the  past,  seemed  hopelessly  a  back  number.  Instead  of 
one  or  two  churches  which  could  stand  strong  and  wield  a 
real  power  in  the  community,  there  might  be  half  a  dozen, 
squabbling  now  and  then  over  points  of  doctrine  and  not  one 
of  them  doing  anything  to  build  up  a  vital  moral  life  among 
the  people.     And  moral  delinquency  among  boys  and  girls 


One  Kind  of  Rural  Road. 


was  just  as  sad  and  common  in  some  country  districts  as  in  the 
city.  But  again,  what  could  you  expect  when  a  pastor  was 
lucky  to  get  $200  or  $300  a  year,  and  had  to  run  a  farm  besides 
to  keep  his  family  from  starving  ? 

But  we  do  not  need  to  suppose  such  conditions  to  be  nec- 
essary or  typical  of  farm  communities.  Go  to  a  county  fair  in 
Kansas  or  Iowa  or  California  or  many  another  part  of  the 
West.  Watch  the  sunburned  but  sturdy  farmers'  families 
as  they  drive  up  with  their  "machines."  They  are  strong, 
happy,  and  have  money  to  spend.    What  does  it  mean? 


The  Farmer  and  the  Highways 


409 


The  Farmer's  New  Carry-all. 


Simply  this,  that  it  is  possible  to  apply  to  life  in  a  rural  com- 
munity the  same  fundamental  principles  of  which  we  have 
already  spoken  in  discussing  the  "  Elements  of  Community 
Welfare."     There  will  be 
differences   in   the    way 
some    things    are   done, 
but  the  result  is  just  as 
certain  and  as  helpful. 

257.  The  Farmer  and 
the  Highways.  —  Take, 
for  example,  the  problem 
of  community  planning. 
We  said  that  one  of  the 
great  requisites  is  con- 
venience. The  farmer  to-day  cannot  amount  to  anything 
if  he  lives  a  hermit  life.  He  sells  his  produce  to  communities 
miles  away  and  buys  many  things  from  them.  If  he  is  to 
keep  in  touch  with  the  rest  of  his  neighborhood,  he  must 
meet  with  them  at  church,  at  the  Grange,  at  the  fair,  or 
the  political  meeting.  His  family  must  also  travel  some 
distance  in  going  to  school  or  to  the  other  meeting-places 
we  have  just  mentioned. 

How  vitally  important,  then,  is  the  country  road !  How 
much  less  it  costs  in  time,  in  energy  of  man  and  beast,  in  wear 
and  tear  of  wagons  and  harness,  or  in  gasoline,  if  the  road 
is  smooth  and  reasonably  level !  And  this  matter  is  of  im- 
portance to  the  city  dweller  too ;  for  he  must  have  the  farm 
produce,  and  if  it  costs  more  than  it  should  to  get  this  to  the 
railroad  station,  he  must  pay  an  extra  sum  for  this  waste  of 
time  and  energy. 

The  national  government  itself  has  realized  the  seriousness 
of  the  problem ;  in  1916  it  appropriated  seventy-five  millions 
of  dollars  to  be  spent  in  the  next  five  years  to  assist  those 
states  which  are  trying  to  improve  their  rural  roads.  Most 
states  are  taking  up  the  work  in  earnest.  Great  stretches 
of  macadamized  or  concrete  highways  reach  for  miles  upon 


410  American  Country  Life 

miles  where  once  were  nothing  but  muddy,  dusty,  or  stony 
wagon-tracks.  And  all  this  is  in  addition  to  what  the  local 
governments  are  doing. 

If  you  have  not  already  made  a  map  of  your  township  or  county, 
do  so  now.  Show  on  it  all  the  public  roads,  indicating  what  kind 
of  construction  they  received.  Do  you  find  any  that  need  repairs 
or  improvement?     Why  isn't  it  done?     Consult  farmers  or  team- 


Well-kept  Country  Road. 
This  has  been  treated  with  a  preparation  of  oil. 

sters  who  can  tell  you  what  it  costs  to  carry  freight  in  your  neighbor- 
hood and  how  much  difference  it  makes  to  them  whether  the  road 
is  good  or  poor.  Study  also  the  kinds  of  roadways  sufficiently  to 
determine  what  kind  is  best  for  your  section.  If  you  have  the 
chance,  observe  a  piece  of  road  under  construction.  Notice  the 
grades,  ditches,  culverts,  tools  used,  and  any  other  features  of 
importance. 

In  many  sections  of  the  country  interurban  electric  lines 
cater  particularly  to  the  business  of  the  farmers  along  the  way. 
They  help  to  take  the  farm  products  in  to  market  and  make  it 
easier  for  the  farmer  and  his  family  themselves  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  what  the  larger  towns  have  to  offer  them  in  the 


A  New  Hampshire  Country  Railroad. 


Health  as  a  Rural  Problem  411 

way  of  trade  or  entertainment.  The  national  government 
through  its  postmasters  is  now  making  a  special  effort  to 
develop  its  parcel  post  system  so  that  eggs,  butter,  and  other 
perishable  products  can  be  carried  quickly  and  safely  directly 
from  the  farm  to  the  city  family.  The  further  this  activity 
can  be  carried,  the  better 
it  will  be  for  all  con- 
cerned. 

258.  Health  as  a  Rural 
Problem.  —  Health  is 
another  element  of  wel- 
fare even  more  vital  than 
convenience  to  both  the 
rural  family  and  the  city 
resident.  As  the  farmer's 
family  are  likely  to  be 
outdoors  much  of  the  time,  they  have  one  great  physical 
advantage.  But  too  often  this  is  only  just  about  good 
enough  to  offset  some  flagrant  disregard  of  other  laws  of 
health. 

Sometimes  the  water  for  the  household  is  taken  from  a  well 
which  is  so  situated  that  drainage  or  sewage  from  the  house 
or  stable  soaks  down  into  it.  After  a  while  some  one  has 
typhoid  fever  but  nobody  can  guess  the  cause.  Sometimes 
the  stables  are  not  kept  clean,  the  pails  used  when  the  cows 
are  milked  are  not  thoroughly  washed,  and  the  milk  becomes 
another  source  of  disease.  Now  if  this  milk  is  sold  in  a  vil- 
lage or  city,  the  deadly  germs  are  carried  with  it.  Another 
evidence  of  the  close  connection  between  country  and  city ! 

Then  there  is  the  disposal  of  garbage.  Perhaps  it  is  thrown 
out  for  the  hens  to  pick  over,  or  dumped  into  the  pig  pen, 
which  is  usually  vilely  filthy.  While  it  is  being  kept  until 
ready  for  such  a  use,  it  may  have  been  left  in  a  bucket  back 
of  the  kitchen  door  where  the  flies  have  easy  access  to  it. 

Another  matter  is  that  of  quarantine  against  contagious 
diseases.    There  is  no  doctor  within  a  few  blocks  who  can  be 


412 


American  Country  Life 


called  the  instant  anything  is  out  of  the  way.  Therefore  a 
child  who,  without  knowing  just  what  is  wrong,  is  coming 
down  with  some  disease,  can  expose  everybody  whom  he 
happens  to  see.  Epidemics  have  been  just  as  pitiful  scourges 
in  the  country  as  in  the  city. 

In  suggesting  these  things,  we  do  not  mean  to  cast  any 
reflections  upon  the  good  intentions  of  country  people.  But 
just  mentioning  them  is  enough  to  show  that  the  care  of 


Farm  Scene  on  the  Great  Plains,  Eastern  Colorado. 
Observe  the  windmills.    The  water  is  raised  from  deep  wells. 


conditions  which  promote  health  is  every  bit  as  real  a  problem 
in  the  country  as  in  the  thickly  settled  community.  And  of 
course  pure  food,  personal  cleanliness,  and  sanitary  and 
pleasant  homes  are  of  equal  interest  everywhere. 

269.  The  Protection  of  Life  and  Property.  —  From  the 
standpoint  of  protection  the  rural  community  finds  conditions 
much  different  from  those  of  the  city.  The  country  com- 
munity cannot  afford  to  maintain  an  expensive  fire  depart- 
ment, with  modern  engines  and  hook  and  ladder  companies. 


Protection  of  Life  and  Property         413 

Instead  of  an  electric  alarm  system  notifying  a  paid  fire 
company,  the  church  bells  call  out  all  the  community.  With 
pails  and  tubs  they  pass  water  from  the  nearest  well,  spring, 
or  stream,  but  if  a  fire  gets  a  good  start,  the  situation  is 
almost  hopeless.  In  some  places  we  find  volunteer  fire 
companies  with  some  equipment,  and  these  at  times  do 
good  service. 

Fortunately  the  houses  in  the  country  are  often  far  enough 
apart  so  that  the  fire  may  be  limited  to  the  building  where  it 


Country  Stores. 
Main  street  of  Tower  City,  North  Dakota. 

starts ;  but  if  once  a  blaze  gets  under  headway  in  the  group  of 
frame  buildings  that  usually  appears  in  a  country  village, 
several  of  them  are  likely  to  burn.  Sympathy,  cooperation, 
and  assistance  in  making  a  new  start  are  ever  abundant  among 
country  people.  Yet  the  rural  home-keeper  who  does  not 
carry  fire  insurance  is  making  a  mistake  which  he  may  some 
time  regret  bitterly. 

Crime  occurs  in  the  country  as  well  as  in  the  city.  But 
since  the  people  are  scattered  and  less  wealth  is  on  display, 
there  is  less  temptation  for  the  sneak  thief  and  the  burglar. 
Seldom  do  we  find  a  paid  policeman  except  in  the  large  vil- 


414  American  Country  Life 

lages,  and  the  rural  constable  and  justice  of  the  peace  are 
plain  members  of  the  community  like  anybody  else. 

To  a  greater  degree  than  most  city  people  the  farmer  finds 
the  national  and  state  governments  of  direct  use  to  him  in 
protecting  his  property,  especially  the  growing  crops  which 
mean  so  much  to  him.  The  warnings  of  the  Weather  Bureau 
about  storms,  frosts,  floods,  and  the  like,  he  can  get  through 
the  rural  mail  delivery  in  season  to  be  of  great  service  to  him. 


Courtesy  of  National  Child  Labor  Committee 

Stripping  Tobacco  on  a  Kentucky  Farm. 

Work  of  this  kind  keeps  boys  out  of  school  and  often  makes  them  hate 
farm  life. 

That  crops  to  the  value  of  nearly  $800,000,000  are  ruined 
in  one  year  by  insects,  and  property  worth  $167,000,000  is 
annually  destroyed  by  rats,  are  facts  which  directly  concern 
the  farmer.  And  so  whatever  is  done  to  prevent  this  loss 
by  the  national  Department  of  Agriculture  or  the  state 
bureau  of  the  same  nature,  is  of  great  interest  to  him.  Some- 
times when  a  state  or  national  agent  finds  the  farmer's  cattle 
suffering  from  an  infectious  disease  and  orders  them  to  be 
slaughtered,  the  farmer  is  tempted  to  regret  this  activity. 
But  after  all,  this  is  a  phase  of  the  work  of  protecting  the 


The  Rural  School  415 

community  which  he  would  surely  wish  to  be  performed  if 
the  victim  were  somebody  else. 

Bulletin  after  bulletin  issued  by  the  state  or  national  de- 
partment concerns  the  potato  blight,  the  army  worm,  the 
cotton  boll  weevil,  the  preservation  of  insect-eating  birds, 
and  countless  other  similar  matters  of  direct  significance  to 
the  farmer.  Since  these  bulletins  are  sold  cheaply  or  are 
even  given  away,  a  much  wider  use  ought  to  be  made  of 
them  than  is  made  now. 

How  much  use  has  your  family  made  of  these  ? 

260.  The  Rural  School.  —  Great  has  been  the  improve- 
ment in  late  years  in  the  school  facilities  offered  to  the 
country  boy  and  girl.  Instead  of  several  little  red  school- 
houses  (more  likely  to  be  white  to-day),  we  find  well-equipped 
central  buildings  to  which  the  children  are  carried  in  the 
morning  and  from  which  they  are  brought  home  in  the 
evening  by  some  one  paid  by  the  school  district.  Even  high 
school  education  is  generously  distributed  all  over  the  state. 
Especially  in  the  far  West  every  county  is  likely  to  have  a 
union  high  school  even  if  the  smaller  communities  cannot 
afford  one.  ■ 

Very  noticeable,  too,  is  the  adaptation  of  the  course  of 
study  to  suit  the  needs  of  the  country  resident.  Science,  for 
example,  can  be  taught  so  as  to  apply  to  farm  life  as  well  as 
to  the  factory  in  the  city  or  to  the  smelter  in  the  mining 
districts.  Agriculture  itself  is  taught  as  a  regular  subject 
in  the  curriculum.  In  some  states  a  person  cannot  get  a 
certificate  to  teach  in  a  rural  school  unless  he  has  qualified 
in  that  subject  as  well  as  others.  Courses  in  the  fundamental 
principles  of  home-making  are  not  only  offered  to  but  are 
required  of  the  girls,  so  that  they  can  be  better  fitted  to  do 
their  part  to  make  farm  life  happy. 

Of  course  no  one  will  wish  to  hinder  a  country  boy  or  girl 
from  taking  subjects  which  will  qualify  him  to  enter  college. 
Rather  should  we  encourage  such  an  ambition.    But  there  are 


416 


American  Country  Life 


plenty  of  colleges  that  will  accept  the  work  of  a  good  rural 
high  school  as  readily  as  of  a  city  school,  for  they  know 
that  when  the  country  youth  comes  to  college  he  comes 
in  earnest.  Besides,  in  many  states  the  rural  schools  and 
city  schools  form  a  part  of  a  great  system  with  the  state 
university  at  its  head.  Then  the  graduate  of  one  steps 
just  as  naturally  into  the  higher  work  as  the  graduate  of 
the  other. 


New  School  Building  in  a  Country  Village. 


261.  The  Higher  Life  of  the  Farm  Community.  —  Does 
farming  need  to  be  a  lonely  life?  Not  for  one  who  has  an 
appreciation  of  all  the  great  living  forces  of  nature  so  lavishly 
manifested  to  the  country  dweller.  Not  when  it  is  so  easy 
as  it  is  in  many  districts  to-day  to  keep  in  touch  with  what  is 
going  on  in  the  rest  of  the  world.  Would  you  guess  that  the 
state  of  Iowa  has  more  telephones  in  proportion  to  its  popula- 
tion than  any  other  state?  Yet  it  is  so.  The  farmer's  wife 
can  call  the  doctor,  talk  "  clothes  "  with  her  friends,  and  hear 
all  the  neighborhood  news  without  going  out  of  her  own  sit- 
ting room.  The  rural  mail  carrier  comes  at  least  once  every 
day,  and  brings  the  daily  paper  as  well  as  "  Wallace's  Farmer" 


The  Higher  Life  of  the  Farm  Community    417 


or  the  "  Country  Gentleman  "  or  any  other  of  the  excellent 
farm  journals  now  published. 

The  schoolhouse  is  often  a  center  of  community  activity 
in  the  country  as  well  as  the  city.  Entertainments,  Grange 
meetings,  extension  courses  with  lecturers  from  the  state 
university,  can  be  held  there.  It  can  be  a  social  center  in 
every  sense  of  the  word. 
Some  communities  pre- 
fer to  make  the  church 
such  a  social  center. 
There  is  a  great  field  for 
a  church  which  wishes 
to  make  its  influence 
felt  in  the  life  of  its 
people  during  the  whole 
week  as  well  as  on  Sun- 
day. Frequently  we 
find,  too,  that  instead 
of  continuing  several 
weak,  uninspiring  little  WlNTER  Travel  in  the  Country' 

churches      the     people      This  old slei^ L**™  atpicture  of  George 

/      ^  Washington. 

unite    in     a    federated 

church  which  is  a  real  power  and  serves  its  neighborhood  in 

countless  ways. 

Then  in  the  summer  a  Chautauqua  may  be  held,  and  the 
people  may  hear  strong  messages  from  thinkers  in  other  parts 
of  the  country  and  enjoy  some  of  the  better  types  of  enter- 
tainment. In  the  fall  there  is  usually  a  county  fair,  to  bring 
the  people  together  from  miles  around,  to  show  what  they 
have  raised,  to  see  what  others  have  done,  and  to  watch  the 
exciting  finishes  in  what  somebody  once  called  the  "  sport 
of  kings." 

The  young  folks  are  not  neglected,  either.  They  are 
welcomed  into  the  Grange  as  soon  as  they  are  old  enough 
to  enjoy  it,  or  perhaps  they  have  their  own  community  club. 
Sometimes  in  connection  with  the  schools,  sometimes  under 


418 


American  Country  Life 


other  auspices,  corn  clubs  are  organized  for  the  boys,  canning 
clubs  for  the  girls,  contests  to  see  who  can  raise  the  biggest 
hog  in  several  counties,  and  many  other  activities  which  add 
zest  to  the  farm  work  and  make  the  young  people  feel  that 
they  have  a  real  part  in  the  nation's  life.  They  cannot  go  to 
the  "  movies  "  after  supper  every  night,  but  they  can  do 
many  things  that  the  average  city  or  small  town  boy  would 
never  be  able  to  undertake. 


Looking  Up  the  Connecticut  Valley. 
New  arch  bridge  and  village  of  North  Walpole,  New  Hampshire. 

When  you  come  to  think  it  over,  it  seems  as  if  the  worst 
problem  for  the  boy  and  girl  may  be  the  life  in  a  half-grown 
village  or  small  town.  There  we  may  not  have  either  the 
healthful  hard  work  of  the  farm  or  the  wide  variety  of  inter- 
ests of  the  city.  Poor  shows  are  degrading,  but  the  town 
cannot  afford  high-class  ones.  Churches  are  likely  to  be  too 
weak  and  perhaps  too  numerous.  If  the  place  has  saloons, 
they  become  the  center  of  interest  where  many  waste  their 
money  and   lose    their  manhood.     Gambling    clubs    and 


The  Farmer  as  a  Business  Man  419 

"  speak-easies  "  are  likely  to  be  common,  and  many  a  boy 
gets  a  downward  start  in  such  a  place. 

Did  you  ever  know  such  a  community?  Can  you  make  any 
suggestions  about  improving  it? 

262.  The  Farmer  as  a  Business  Man.  —  One  of  the  signs 
of  betterment  in  rural  conditions  is  that  farmers  are  making 
farming  a  business  instead  of  a  habit.  They  are  not  doing 
things  just  because  their  fathers  did  them  that  way,  but 
they  are  trying  to  find  out  what  is  best  suited  to  the  condi- 


Up-to-date  Farm  Buildings. 

tions  in  which  they  live.  Shall  a  farmer  give  his  whole  at- 
tention to  one  crop  or  shall  he  try  diversified  or  "  mixed  " 
farming?  He  thinks  about  this  matter.  He  gets  advice 
from  his  state  college.  Perhaps  he  takes  a  few  weeks  off 
some  winter  and  studies  at  the  college.  He  tries,  in  short, 
to  know  why  things  are  done. 

The  present-day  farmer  can  keep  in  touch  with  the  markets 
and  know  what  the  prevailing  prices  are.  He  can  and  does 
insist  on  getting  a  reasonable  return  for  his  work  and  for  his 
investment  in  his  crops.  He  has  learned  how  to  demand  and 
to  get  a  square  deal  from  the  politicians.  No  parts  of  the 
country  show  so  much  independent  voting  as  the  states  of 
the  middle  and  far  West  where  farmers  are  numerous 


420 


American  Country  Life 


The  methods  of  farm  labor  are  very  different  from  what 
they'  once  were.  The  back-breaking  hoe  and  scythe  and 
shovel  are  not  needed  nearly  so  much  as  formerly.  The 
farmer  sits  on  the  seat  of  a  cultivator  or  mowing-machine, 
and  lets  the  animals  that  draw  the  machine  do  the  hard  part 
of  the  work.  Plowing  and  harvesting,  if  the  farm  is  large, 
will  probably  be  done  with  aid  of  steam-propelled  tractors 
owned  by  the  neighborhood  in  common. 


W0M: 


it  £t^ ^^"-^''-^C  v '^"  k, 


Country  Estate  of  Madame  Modjeska. 
Near  Santa  Ana,  California.     Notice  the  great  live-oak  trees. 


Can  a  man  without  brains  do  all  this?  By  no  means. 
Real  executive  ability  of  a  high  order  is  needed  to  make  a 
successful  farmer.  Many  a  man  who  might  succeed  in  some 
narrower  field  would  fail  as  a  farmer  if  he  could  not  acquire 
the  broad  vision  and  all-round  knack  of  doing  things  which 
the  farmer  must  have.  Let  no  one  despise  farm  life,  its 
requirements,  or  its  opportunities.  Farming  will  never  be 
easy  work,  but  it  need  not  be  disagreeable.  Some  states 
have  not  the  soil  to  develop  rich  farms ;  but  with  a  little  care 
and  attention  any  state  can  make  its  farm  life  happy.    It 


The  Farm  Loan  System  421 

will  do  no  harm  if  some  of  our  discontented  city  residents  are 
attracted  "  back  to  the  farm." 

As  between  country  and  city,  would  you  care  to  exchange  from 
the  life  you  are  now  living  ?  Could  every  city  man  run  a  farm  suc- 
cessfully ? 

263.  The  Farm  Loan  System.  —  Farmers  have  often  found 
difficulty  in  getting  money  at  reasonable  rates  of  interest 
when  they  wished  to  borrow  it  to  make  improvements  on 
their  farms  or  for  other  desirable  purposes.  To  help  them 
out  of  this  difficulty  and  to  make  it  possible  for  the  farming 
resources  of  the  nation  to  be  used  as  the  basis  of  credits  in  the 
business  world  as  well  as  other  forms  of  wealth,  a  federal 
farm  loan  system  was  established  by  a  law  of  Congress  in 
the  summer  of  1916. 

As  in  the  federal  reserve  banking  system,  the  country  is 
divided  into  twelve  districts,  with  a  federal  land  bank  in  each 
district.  The  two  systems  are,  however,  entirely  distinct, 
and  with  one  exception  the  banks  are  in  different  cities  from 
those  which  possess  the  federal  reserve  banks. 

In  which  district  are  you  ?     Where  is  your  farm  loan  bank  ? 

In  any  neighborhood  ten  or  more  farmers  may  combine 
to  form  a  national  farm-loan  association,  and  these  associa- 
tions may  apply  to  the  federal  land  bank  in  their  district  for 
loans.  No  money  is  loaned  to  amount  to  more  than  fifty 
per  cent  of  the  assessed  value  of  the  property  on  which  it  is 
to  be  used,  and  none  is  loaned  on  property  already  mort- 
gaged unless  it  be  used  first  for  the  purpose  of  paying  off 
that  mortgage.  The  rate  of  interest  is  to  be  as  low  as  the 
safe  management  of  the  system  will  permit,  and  the  money 
borrowed  may  be  paid  back  in  installments. 

The  whole  system  is  under  the  general  direction  of  a 
Federal  Farm  Loan  Board  of  five  persons.  The  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  is  chairman  of  the  board,  with  a  Farm  Loan 
Commissioner  and  three  other  members  appointed  by  the 
President.    It  is  too  early  to  tell  how  much  good  will  be 


42£  American  Country  Life 

accomplished  by  this  new  venture,  but  it  is  worth  noting  that 
the  farmers  are  getting  reasonable  consideration  from  our 
national  financiers,  and  the  success  of  similar  ventures  in 
other  countries  indicates  that  it  ought  to  improve  conditions 
here  in  our  rural  districts. 

Are  many  of  the  farms  in  your  section  mortgaged?  Do  many 
of  the  farmers  make  money  ? 

QUESTIONS 

Is  there  any  justice  in  the  contemptuous  attitude  sometimes 
assumed  by  the  city  resident  toward  the  farmer?  State  the  com- 
parative importance  of  the  farmer. 

What  reasons  can  you  offer  for  the  decline  in  population  and 
prosperity  of  many  rural  districts?  How  does  your  state  appear 
in  statistics  on  this  subject?  Did  you  ever  spend  enough  time  in 
the  country  to  learn  anything  aoout  the  situation?  Is  backward- 
ness characteristic  of  farming  communities  everywhere? 

To  what  extent  does  the  large  community  depend  upon  the 
farmer?  How  far  does  the  farmer  have  to  depend  upon  outside 
sources?  Make  clear  the  ways  in  which  the  railroads,  interurban 
lines,  and  regular  highways  affect  the  life  of  the  farmer.  How 
does  the  condition  of  the  roads  directly  touch  the  farmer's  pocket- 
book?  What  kind  of  roads  are  most  suitable  for  the  country 
districts  ?  Why  are  there  not  more  of  them  ?  Are  the  great  high- 
ways —  the  Lincoln  Highway,  for  example,  of  use  to  the  farmer  ? 

Show  the  bearing  of  health  regulations  upon  rural  life.  Give 
examples  of  disregard  of  health  conditions.  Compare  the  means 
of  fire  protection  in  city  and  country.  Where  is  the  need  of  police 
protection  greater,  and  why?  Show  how  the  federal  and  state 
governments  can  be  of  help  in  the  saving  of  crops. 

How  are  school  administration  and  courses  of  study  being  adapted 
to  rural  needs?  (If  yours  is  a  rural  school,  give  extended  time  to 
the  discussion  of  these  questions.)  How  can  the  church  be  made 
an  effective  factor  in  the  upbuilding  of  rural  life  ?  What  attention 
can  the  farmer  give  to  reading  ?  What  part  in  farm  life  is  provided 
by  the  rural  mail  delivery ;  the  traveling  library ;  the  agricultural 
college;  the  Grange;  the  county  fair?  What  interests  and  forms 
of  recreation  are  available  for  the  country  boy  or  girl?  What 
pleasures  or  social  privileges  exist  in  the  country  which  the  city 
does  not  enjoy?  Compare  the  small  town  in  this  respect  with 
both  country  and  city. 


Special  Topics  423 

Show  that  a  successful  farmer  must  have  much  executive  ability 
and  business  sense.  What  should  he  know  about  the  markets 
and  how  can  he  know  this?  What  has  machinery  done  for  the 
farmer?  Is  it  for  the  best  interests  of  themselves  or  the  country 
that  farmers  should  vote  solidly  at  elections  ?  Are  the  opportunities 
of  the  farmer  equally  good  in  all  sections  of  the  country  ? 

Why  was  the  Federal  Farm  Loan  Board  established?  Explain 
its  work. 

SPECIAL   TOPICS 

President  Roosevelt's  Country  Life  Commission. 

Country  Road  Construction. 

A  Course  of  Study  for  the  Rural  School. 

Corn  Clubs  and  Canning  Clubs. 

The  Country  Church. 

The  Rural  Carrier. 

Chautauquas. 

The  History  and  Services  of  the  "Grange." 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

TBADE,  TKAVEL,  AND  NEWS 


And  a  new  word  runs  between,  whispering,  Let  us  be  one. 

—  Kipling. 

We   become  wholly  dependent  for  the  necessities  of  life  on  the 
masters  of  transportation. — Spearman. 


264.  "In  Days  of  Old." —  The  story  of  the  steps  by 
which  men  have  learned  to  take  themselves,  to  carry  goods, 
and  to  send  messages,  over  land,  on  the  sea,  and  through  the 
air,  is  infinitely  fascinating.  It  is  almost  the  history  of 
civilization  itself.  But  we  must  limit  our  discussion  of  it 
to  our  own  land. 

When  our  Constitution  was  adopted,  we  cultivated  our 
fields,  transported  our  products,  and  communicated  with  our 
friends,  less  efficiently  and  easily,  in  most  respects,  than  the 
Romans  did  when  their  great  Empire  was  at  the  height  of  its 
glory.  Except  between  the  largest  towns,  travel  on  land  was 
almost  entirely  by  pack  horse.  Stagecoaches  took  two  days 
to  go  from  Philadelphia  to  New  York.  Sailing  vessels 
carried  almost  all  the  freight  that  was  shipped,  for  people 
could  not  afford  the  expense  of  any  other  method.  To  carry 
a  ton  of  goods  from  Philadelphia  to  Pittsburgh  cost  $100  or 
more.  Thomas  Jefferson  complained  that  it  took  four  weeks 
for  a  letter  from  Charleston  to  reach  him  in  Virginia,  when 
two  weeks,  in  his  opinion,  was  plenty  long  enough. 

A  few  turnpikes  were  already  started,  the  first  in  the 
country,  which  ran  from  Philadelphia  to  Lancaster,  being 

424 


The  Steamboat 


425 


opened  in  1792.  A  little  later  canals  aroused  a  great  deal  of 
interest,  and  for  a  few  years  a  veritable  craze  for  construct- 
ing them  swept  the  country.  They  reduced  the  cost  of  trans- 
portation wonderfully,  and  made  a  considerable  saving  in 
the  matter  of  time. 

265.  The  Steamboat.  —  Oliver  Evans  and  John  Fitch 
experimented  with  steam  as  a  motive  power  for  boats  in  the 
1780's,  and   Fitch  actually  ran  a  boat  from   Philadelphia 


Old  Stagecoach. 
In  regular  service  until  displaced  by  an  electric  railroad  in  1900. 

to  Trenton.  But  when  Robert  Fulton  took  the  Clermont 
from  New  York  to  Albany  in  1807  the  history  of  successful 
steam  navigation  really  begins.  Four  years  later  a  boat  was 
running  on  the  Ohio.  The  steamboat  was  early  put  in  oper- 
ation on  the  Great  Lakes,  and  thus  the  westward  movement 
encouraged  by  the  opening  of  the  Erie  Canal  was  made  many 
times  more  effective. 

In  1838  the  Great  Western  made  its  way  across  the  Atlantic 
in  fifteen  days,  using  steam  power  alone.  The  next  step  was 
the  use  of  iron  vessels.  And  so  the  development  of  the 
steamboat  has  progressed  until  we  have  our  ocean  liners, 


426 


Trade,  Travel,  and  News 


more  palatial  than  most  dwellings,  traversing  regular  routes 
between  the  great  cities  of  the  globe. 

266.  Constitutional  Questions.  —  The  great  importance 
of  highways  and  canals  appealed  to  everybody.  Naturally 
the  proposal  was  made  that  the  national  government  should 
give  money  from  its  treasury  to  aid  in  the  construction  of 
these  public  works.  A  great  national  highway  known  as  the 
Cumberland  Road  was  begun,  to  run  west  from  Cumber- 
land,  Md.,   through  Wheeling,   across  Ohio,   and  beyond 


How  They  Went  West  Before 


Presidents  Jefferson  and  Madison,  who  held  to  the  "  strict 
construction  "  theory  in  interpreting  the  Constitution,  did 
not  believe  such  expenses  were  authorized  by  that  document. 
Federal  aid  to  enterprises  of  that  kind  was  therefore  stopped 
for  a  considerable  period. 

But  this  policy  toward  "  internal  improvements,"  as  they 
were  called,  was  not  permanent.  With  the  general  accept- 
ance of  the  "  broad  construction  "  idea,  the  objections  dis- 
appeared. Millions  of  acres  of  public  land  were  given  to 
railroad  companies  to  aid  in  constructing  the  roads.  Mil- 
lions of  dollars  are  appropriated  almost  every  year  to  spend 


The  Railroad  427 

in  improving  the  rivers  and  harbors  of  the  country.  To-day 
we  find  the  government  itself  undertaking  great  public  im- 
provements. On  the  Panama  Canal  nearly  $400,000,000  was 
spent,  and  the  government  is  building  a  railroad  to  tap  the 
coal  fields  of  Alaska  and  reach  the  heart  of  that  promising 
though  still  little-known  dominion. 

267.  The  Railroad.  —  During  the  height  of  the  furore  for 
spending  money  on  canals  and  turnpikes,  a  new  competitor 
entered  the  field  of  transportation  which  soon  caused  people 


Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company 
There  Was  a  Railroad. 

to  regret  that  they  had  made  such  heavy  and  hasty  invest- 
ments. This  was  the  railroad.  The  Englishman  George 
Stephenson  was  the  first  to  construct  a  locomotive  for  travel- 
ing on  rails.  The  first  real  railroad  in  America,  the  Balti- 
more and  Ohio,  began  its  construction  work  in  1828.  By 
1840  we  had  nearly  3000  miles  of  railroad  in  this  country ;  in 
1860  we  had  30,000 ;  and  now  we  have  over  250,000. 

And  how  these  railroads  have  grown !  At  first  they  were 
short  affairs,  running  only  from  one  city  to  the  next  large 
place.  But  as  time  went  on,  the  short  lines  combined  into 
great  systems.    The  short  roads  which  one  had  to  use  in 


4*8 


Trade,  Travel,  and  News 


traveling  from  New  York  to  Buffalo  were  united  in  the  New 
York  Central  system,  which  later  found  its  way  into  Pitts- 
burgh and  Chicago.  The  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  constructed 
between  Philadelphia  and  Pittsburgh,  acquired  by  purchase, 
rental,  or  other  means,  an  eastern  terminal  in  New  York,  and 
western  outlets  in  Chicago  and  St.  Louis. 


Old  Style  Toll  Bridge  and  Railroad  Bridge. 
Bellows  Falls,  Vermont. 


After  some  time  roads  were  completed  clear  across  the 
continent.  At  Ogden,  Utah,  in  1869,  was  driven  the  last 
spike  which  completed  the  work  on  the  Union  Pacific  and 
Central  Pacific  lines  from  Omaha  to  San  Francisco.  The 
Santa  F6,  from  Chicago  to  Los  Angeles  and  San  Francisco, 
was  the  first  road  to  go  from  Chicago  all  the  way  to  the  coast 
under  one  management.  Now  we  have  three  great  northern 
lines  terminating  at  Seattle  and  Tacoma,  the  Southern 
Pacific  from  New  Orleans  to  the  Pacific,  and  several  other 


Telling  the  News 


429 


roads  which  make  such  good  connections  with  the  western 
coast  that  they  could  almost  be  correctly  called  trans- 
continental lines. 

Another  form  of  consolidation  was  not  always  so  helpful  to 
the  public.  That  was  the  acquisition  of  a  group  of  roads  by 
one  powerful  financier  or  banking  company.  It  was  "  Com- 
modore "  Vanderbilt  whose  wealth  and  genius  made  the  New 
York  Central  system  possible,.    E.  H.  Harriman  and  James  J. 


The  Twentieth  Century  Limited. 
A  through  train  from  New  York  to  Chicago  in  twenty  hours. 

Hill  were  later  "railroad  kings"  whose  marvelous  organizing 
powers  made  great  things  possible  in  the  development  of  the 
West.  These  two  men  were  sincerely  interested  in  the  people 
and  country  that  they  served,  but  too  often  the  railroad  was 
a  means  of  making  money — nothing  more.  Some  of  the  finan- 
ciers have  cared  too  little  for  the  welfare  of  the  people  whose 
business  made  the  road  possible. 

Make  a  map  of  the  United  States,  showing  the  location  of  the 
great  railroad  systems,  and  your  own  railroad  connection  with  the 
rest  of  the  country. 

268.  Telling  the  News.  —  It  would  have  taken  President 
Washington  a  week  or  more  to  send  a  message  from  Phila- 
delphia to  his  Mount  Vernon  estate  and  receive  a  reply. 


430 


Trade,  Travel,  and  News 


One  day  in  December,  1898,  the  writer  stood  in  front  of 
a  newspaper  office  in  Providence  about  5 :  30  in  the  after- 
noon, and  read  this  bulletin  which  had  just  been  posted: 
"  The  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  in  Paris  at  8  o'clock  to- 
night." 

When  Washington  was  president  the  postage  rates  on 
letters  varied  with  the  distance  to  be  traveled.     Six  cents 

was  the  lowest  rate,  and  it  cost 
twenty-five  cents  to  send  a  letter 
over  450  miles.  In  1914  one 
could  send  a  letter  to  London, 
Berlin,  Panama,  or  Manila  for 
two  cents.  What  made  this  dif- 
ference ? 

Part  of  the  answer  is  given 
by  the  railroads  and  steamship 
lines,  of  which  we  have  spoken. 
Another  part  is  obtained  through 
the  harnessing  of  electricity  for 
the  sending  of  messages.  The 
telegraph  of  Morse,  the  Atlantic 
Cable,  which  we  owe  to  the  per- 
severance of  Cyrus  W.  Field,  the 
Bell  Telephone,  seem  now  to  be 
everyday  necessities.  Without 
the  aid  of  all  these,  we  could  not 
learn  what  is  going  on  in  the  world  much  more  easily  than 
Washington  could.  It  is  likely  that  in  a  few  years  we  may 
regard  Marconi's  wireless  system  an  equal  necessity. 

Encouraged  by  the  possibilities  of  getting  news  quickly 
and  easily,  great  newspapers  have  been  established  in  every 
large  city,  with  thousands  of  smaller  ones  which  try  to  meet 
the  demands  of  less  populous  communities.  To  secure  this 
news  and  distribute  it  to  the  newspapers,  world-wide  news 
agencies  such  as  the  Associated  Press  have  been  formed. 
In  every  important  community  in  the  world,  they  have  their 


Courtesy  of  Am.  Tel.  &  Tel.  Co. 

The  First  Telephone. 

Alexander  Graham  Bell  ex- 
hibited this  at  Philadelphia  in 
1876.  Compare  this  with  the 
exchange  shown  on  page  446, 
and  with  telephones  with  which 
you  are  familiar. 


Meaning  of  These  Factors  in  Our  Life    431 

agents  who  are  alert  for  everything  noteworthy  that  occurs 
and  who  report  it  at  once  to  their  home  headquarters.  From 
here  the  items  are  sent  out  by  wire  to  all  parts  of  the  country. 
Not  only  do  we  have  these  agencies. for  telling  the  news, 
but  other  people  make  it  their  business  to  comment  on  their 
significance.  Every  good  newspaper  has  its  editorial  page 
where  the  views  of  the  editor  or  publisher  are  set  forth. 
Besides  the  newspapers  there  are  many  magazines,  weekly  or 
monthly,  which  summarize  the  events  recorded  in  the  dailies 
and  try  to  interpret  them  for  their  readers.  Many  of  these 
publications  have  circulations  reaching  up  into  the  hundreds 
of  thousands. 

Make  a  list  of  ten  newspapers  and  ten  magazines  which  you 
would  judge  to  have  a  large  circulation.  Discuss  their  most  notice- 
able qualities.     Do  you  think  they  can  all  be  equally  trusted  ? 

269.  The  Meaning  of  These  Factors  in  Our  Life.  —  In 
many  ways  which  we  can  clearly  understand,  even  though 
we  do  not  see  them  at  work  with  our  physical  eyes,  all  these 
agents  of  communication  and  transportation  affect  us  vitally. 
They  enable  us  to  be  intelligent  and  to  have  a  better  under- 
standing of  the  things  that  take  place  all  over  the  world. 
They  enable  the  business  man  to  conceive  and  execute  great 
enterprises  which  can  be  properly  carried  out  only  when  all 
phases  of  their  operation  can  be  managed  by  one  man  or  from 
one  office.  Governments,  too,  carry  on  war  or  conduct  the 
activities  of  peace,  with  a  speed  and  efficiency  of  which 
George  Washington  never  dreamed. 

Two  other  influences  exerted  by  these  factors  of  "  trade, 
travel,  and  news  "  we  have  had  frequent  occasion  to  em- 
phasize in  taking  up  many  of  the  topics  we  have  studied. 
They  bind  a  community,  a  nation,  and  even  the  world  to- 
gether and  produce  a  common  interest  in  the  things  that 
concern  all  alike.  They  also  have  brought  it  about  that  we 
can  no  longer  pretend  to  be  independent  in  any  way  except 
in  our  government  and  in  our  thinking.    As  Paul  says,  "  If 


432 


Trade,  Travel,  and  News 


one  member  suffer,  all  the  members  suffer  with  it."  We  de- 
pend upon  each  other  for  things  which  we  do  not  try  to 
provide  through  our  own  efforts. 

It  seems  to  require,  something  like  a  great  war  to  make  us 
realize  the  truth  of  these  facts.  In  time  of  peace,  when 
matters  are  going  smoothly,  we  fail  to  observe  the  forces  that 
make  us  what  we  are.  In  time  of  war,  when  they  are  rudely 
interrupted,  we  see  their  importance  and  their  hold  upon  our 
lives. 


Courtesy  of  Am.  Tel.  &  Tel.  Co. 

Hauling  Telephone  Poles  in  the  Desert. 

The  completion  of  a  transcontinental  line  was  a  triumph  over  serious 
physical  obstacles,  as  well  as  a  striking  accomplishment  from  the  scientific 
and  business  viewpoints.  The  line  was  put  into  successful  operation  in 
1915.  Thousands  of  visitors  at  the  San  Francisco  Exposition  of  that  year 
were  greatly  impressed  as  they  sat  in  their  seats  at  the  American  Tele- 
phone and  Telegraph  Company's  exhibition  rooms  and  listened  to  the 
waves  beating  on  the  shore  of  the  Atlantic,  or  to  a  man  in  New  York  read- 
ing items  from  the  New  York  papers  of  the  same  day. 


Go  over  the  elements  of  community  welfare,  the  activities  of  our 
governments,  the  industrial,  financial,  and  social  problems  which 
we  have  studied,  and  point  out  the  connection  of  them  all  with 
the  means  of  transportation  and  communication. 

What  effect  have  these  improvements  had  upon  the  amount 
and  character  of  laws? 


The  Movements  of  the  People  433 


270.  The  Movements  of  the  People.  —  One  feature  re- 
mains to  be  mentioned,  to  which  we  have  not  given  much 
direct  attention.  It  is  the  problem  of  migration  —  the  mov- 
ing of  the  people  from  one  place  to  another.  The  coming  in 
of  the  foreigner  we  have  discussed.  Within  our  own  borders 
similar  movements  are  going  on  most  of  the  time.  Perhaps 
the  greatest  single  force  in  our  whole  history  is  that  unresting 
movement  of  our  people  westward.  We  doubt  that  those 
who  took  part  in  it  could  always  tell  why.  It  was  an  im- 
pulse, a  call,  that  they  could  not  resist. 

Without  the  steamboat  and  the  railroad  this  movement 
must  have  been  impossible  to  the  degree  in  which  it  did  occur. 
But  for  their  aid,  the  occupation  of  our  vast  central  valleys, 
the  western  prairies,  the  mountain  regions,  and  the  sunset 
slopes  of  the  Pacific,  would  not  yet  be  completed.  Jefferson 
thought  at  one  time  that  it  would  take  a  thousand  years  to 
people  the  lands  east  of  the  Mississippi. 

The  nation  whose  people  stay  fixed  in  the  place  where  they 
are  born  is  likely  to  become  stagnant.     The  people  whose 
laborers  are  comparatively  free  to  go  from  place  to  place 
when  a  better  opportunity  is  offered  will 
show  a  much  higher  standard  of  life  and 
higher    wages    among  its   working   men. 
This  "  mobility  "  of  labor,  as  the  economist 
calls  it,  is  possible  only  when  transporta- 
tion  and   communication   are   easy   and 
cheap. 

How  many  times  have  you  or  your  family 
moved?    Why  did  you  do  it ? 

Travel  for  pleasure  or  for  greater  knowl- 
edge of  the  world  is  also  rendered  pleasant 
and  desirable  by  the  improvements  in  the 
facilities  of  which  we  are  speaking.  Great 
roads  like  the  Lincoln  and  Dixie  High- 
ways make  travel  in  automobiles  delightful  east  and  west, 
north  and  south.     In  the  Pullman  cars  one  can  have  nearly 


Guide-sign  on  the 
Lincoln  Highway. 


434 


Trade,  Travel,  and  News 


all  the  luxuries  of  home.  He  can  carry  his  money  in  the 
form  of  traveler's  checks  issued  by  the  express  companies, 
which  will  be  accepted  almost  anywhere.  If  he  needs  to 
communicate  with  his  friends,  the  mail  and  the  telegraph 

are  ready  for  his  use. 
To  "  see  America  first," 
as  the  railroad  companies 
are  urging,  becomes  al- 
most an  obligation  upon 
a  citizen  who  wishes  to 
be  intelligent,  when  he 
can  do  it  as  easily  and 
comfortably  as  is  possible 
to-day. 

271.  The  Problems  of 
the  Case.  —  Like  many 
another  good  thing,  the 
growth  of  these  conven- 
iences has  been  attended 
with  disagreeable  circum- 
stances. In  speaking  of 
the  street  railways  we 
mentioned  the  occurrence 
of  graft,  corruption,  and 
incompetence  in  manag- 
ing them.  We  have  seen 
how  often  street  railway 
and  great  railroad  sys- 
tems may  be  conducted 
without  regard   for  the 


"  Old  Faithful." 

Every  sixty-five  minutes  this  geyser 
in  Yellowstone  Park  makes  this  wonder- 
ful display. 


interests  of  the  people.  The  misfortunes  of  the  New  York, 
New  Haven,  and  Hartford  railroad  in  trying  to  get  control 
of  the  transportation  lines  of  all  New  England  show  that 
ambitious  enterprises  sometimes  recoil  on  their  projectors. 
It  is  of  tremendous  importance  that  the  "  masters  of 
transportation,"  as  Mr.  Spearman  calls  them,  do  not  become 


Questions  435 

our  masters  also.  We  must  have  the  railroad,  the  telegraph, 
the  telephone,  if  our  present  civilization  is  to  continue.  But 
if  we  allow  these  agencies  to  remain  in  the  hands  of  private 
citizens,  we  must  have  it  assured  that  they  do  not  take  from 
us  more  than  a  reasonable  profit.  Their  object  is  to  serve 
us  at  a  fair  rate.     We  do  not  live  to  help  make  them  rich. 

A  little  later  we  shall  take  up  briefly  the  problems  of  gov- 
ernment regulation  and  government  ownership  of  all  public 
utilities.  We  should  try  to  understand  the  principles  of  that 
discussion,  for  if  the  government  does  undertake  to  own  or 
operate  these  utilities,  the  telegraphs,  telephones,  and  rail- 
roads will  be  the  first  which  it  will  take  over.  Indeed,  we 
have  already  seen  the  railroads  pass  under  government  oper- 
ation as  a  war  measure,  and  when  they  were  restored  to  pri- 
vate hands  they  were  put  under  much  closer  regulation  than 
before. 

One  would  hardly  dare  to  predict  the  future  of  transporta- 
tion and  communication.  It  may  be  that  the  wireless  and  the 
aeroplane  will  do  things  for  the  next  generation  more  wonder- 
ful than  anything  the  inventions  of  the  past  have  done  for  us. 

QUESTIONS 

Describe  the  means  of  communication  and  transportation  al- 
luded to  in  stories  from  the  Bible  or  in  Greek  and  Roman  history 
with  which  you  are  familiar.  What  was  the  state  of  the  means  of 
travel  and  communication  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century  ? 

Relate  the  effect  of  the  canal  upon  our  industrial  development. 
What  effect  did  the  railroad  have  upon  canal  construction  ?  What 
has  been  the  influence  of  the  steamboat  upon  progress?  Trace 
the  growth  of  great  railroad  systems  of  the  country.  Do  you  think 
any  of  the  various  types  of  aircraft  will  be  of  industrial  service  ? 

Give  some  facts  to  show  the  progress  of  the  postal  system.  Make 
clear  the  ways  in  which  electricity  serves  us  by  way  of  communi- 
cation and  transportation.  Explain  the  significance  of  the  names 
Morse,  Field,  Bell,  and  Marconi.  How  far-reaching  do  you  estimate 
the  newspaper  to  have  been  and  to  be  in  American  life?  Can  you 
name  any  newspapers  that  have  or  have  had  a  national  reputation  ? 
How  far  do  you  form  your  opinion  from  what  you  read  ? 


436       Trade,  Travel,  and  News 

From  references  to  these  topics  while  taking  up  other  subjects 
in  our  study,  show  how  the  inventions  and  developments  of  which 
we  have  spoken  helped  to  bind  us  together  and  leave  us  no  longer 
industrially  or  socially  independent.  Do  you  think  this  change 
is  for  the  better? 

How  have  improved  means  of  transportation  encouraged  people 
to  move  about?  What  reasons  cause  people  to  move  from  one 
place  to  another  within  the  country  ?  In  what  directions  has  this 
migration  gone?  What  does  the  name  Pullman  signify  in  regard 
to  the  character  of  present-day  travel? 

How  has  the  development  of  trade  worked  harm  in  international 
relations?  How  has  it  brought  difficulties  into  domestic  industry 
and  government?  What  has  been  done  to  keep  transportation 
agencies  under  control?     Are  any  further  steps  needed? 


SPECIAL   TOPICS 

Practically  all  the  means  of  communication,  inventions,  and 
inventors  mentioned,  would  make  interesting  themes  for  study. 
Both  as  examples  of  great  business  organizations  and  as  illustra- 
tions of  our  present  topic,  the  American  Telephone  and  Telegraph 
Company  (the  Bell  system),  and  the  Western  Union  and  Postal 
Telegraph  Companies  would  repay  careful  study.  The  Wells 
Fargo  ana  other  express  companies,  the  Pullman  Car  Company, 
and  the  great  railroad  systems  —  the  New  York,  New  Haven  and 
Hartford,  the  Pennsylvania,  the  Santa  Fe,  the  "Harriman"  roads, 
the  "Hill"  roads,  and  the  like,  would  all  yield  fruitful  results  from 
the  investigation  of  them. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 
EARNING  A  LIVING 


JVo  laws  however  stringent,  can  make  the  idle  industrious,  the 
thriftless  provident,  or  the  drunken  sober. — Samuel  Smiles. 


272.  Preparation  for  Active  Service.  —  "  The  average  man 
must  earn  his  own  livelihood.  He  should  be  trained  to  do  so, 
and  he  should  be  trained  to  feel  that  he  occupies  a  contempt- 
ible position  if  he  does  not  do  so."  No  better  text  than  these 
words  of  Theodore  Roosevelt  could  be  found  for  the  matter 
we  wish  now  to  present.  We  have  said  truly  that  school  is 
life  itself,  not  merely  a  preparation  for  life.  Yet  the  school's 
part  in  life  is  to  make  us  ready  to  do  something  else.  If  you 
are  not  better  fitted,  when  you  get  your  diploma,  to  do  the 
thing  you  are  best  qualified  to  do,  somebody  or  something  has 
failed  to  meet  a  great  opportunity. 

So  strong  has  this  feeling  become  among  us  that  the  federal 
government  has  undertaken  to  give  some  assistance  from  its 
treasury  to  states  which  are  willing  to  contribute  an  equal 
amount  for  the  same  purpose  and  maintain  the  necessary 
equipment.  By  a  law  passed  in  1917  such  states  will  receive 
sums  that  will  total  over  $7,000,000  a  year.  The  law  specifies 
that  this  money  shall  be  used  to  promote  "  vocational  educa- 
tion in  agriculture  and  in  the  trades,  industries,  and  domestic 
arts." 

Upon  those  who  can  work  well  at  something  a  great  re- 
sponsibility rests.  In  every  ten  people,  taking  them  as  a 
mass,  four  are  too  young,  too  old,  or  too  feeble,  to  take  an 

437 


438  Earning  a  Living 

active  part  in  the  world's  labor.  At  least  two  more  are 
engaged  in  home  duties,  thoroughly  necessary,  it  is  true,  but 
not  of  a  kind  to  bring  in  ready  cash.  One  more  is  usually  out 
of  a  job  temporarily,  either  because  he  is  personally  shiftless 
or  discontented,  or  because  business  in  his  line  happens  to  be 
dull.  That  leaves  three  out  of  the  entire  ten  who  must  not 
only  support  themselves  but  earn  enough  in  addition  to  keep 
the  other  seven  from  starving  to  death. 

Perhaps  you  think  this  is  not  fair,  but  nevertheless  it  is  the 
fact.  But  would  not  boys  or  girls  with  real  stuff  in  them 
rather  help  to  support  some  one  else  than  live  on  charity? 
To  feel  that  when  the  last  bugler  sounds  "  taps  "  for  you 
people  are  going  to  think  of  you  as  one  who  did  his  share  and 
more  than  his  share  in  the  life  of  his  community,  is  far 
pleasanter  than  to  know  that  they  feel  relieved  to  have  one 
less  loafer  to  feed  and  clothe. 

Should  a  child  have  an  allowance  for  pocket  money  or  should 
he  be  expected  to  earn  what  he  spends  in  that  way  ? 

Just  one  caution  before  we  go  further.  While  it  is  glorious 
to  find  one's  heart  throbbing  with  ambition  to  do  something 
for  himself  and  for  mankind,  let  us  not  make  the  mistake  of 
rushing  out  into  service  when  we  are  poorly  equipped  for 
doing  good  work.  Just  as  a  business  man  often  finds  it 
economy  to  spend  money  in  order  to  get  bigger  returns  later, 
so  the  boy  or  girl  who  gets  all  the  school  has  to  give  will  get 
far  better  rewards  after  he  does  start  than  the  one  who  quits 
before  he  has  finished  his  course  and  goes  into  a  job  out  of 
which,  unless  he  has  exceptional  natural  talent,  he  can  never 
hope  to  rise  very  far. 

The  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  estimates  that  a  high 
school  graduate  earns  on  the  average  $1000  a  year  during  an  active 
working  period  of  forty  years  (from  18  to  58  years  of  age).  The 
workman  who  has  not  gone  to  high  school  starts  work  four  years 
earlier,  but  averages  only  $  500  a  year  in  earnings.  Reckoning  each 
of  them  up  to  58  years  of  age,  how  much  better  off  is  the  high 
school  graduate  likely  to  be  at  that  time,  and  what  will  each  of  his 
four  years  in  high  school  have  been  worth  to  him? 


Choosing  a  Vocation  439 

Is  there  any  occupation  which  you  would  care  to  go  into  where 
you  would  regret  having  had  a  high  school  or  college  education? 
Make  a  list  of  25  common  occupations  and  classify  them  with  re- 
gard to  the  value  of  high  school  or  college  training  in  preparation 
for  them.  Is  its  immediate  use  in  making  money  the  only  thing 
worth  considering  in  judging  a  subject  or  a  course  of  study  ? 

273.  Choosing  a  Vocation.  —  It  is  not  safe  to  speak  too 
positively  about  the  duty  of  choosing  a  vocation  before  one 
gets  through  school.  Many  a  boy  has  felt  that  he  would 
like  nothing  better  than  to  drive  a  dump-cart  or  to  call  off 
the  trains  as  the  fellow  with  a  calliope  voice  does  it  in  a  big 
railway  station.  Even  in  the  high  school  many  a  pupil 
finds  that  his  entire  ambition  for  life  changes  during  the 
progress  of  his  course. 

Yet  men  and  women  who  have  thought  deeply  on  this 
problem  of  "  vocational  guidance  "  are  convinced  that  even 
though  a  pupil  may  experience  changes  in  the  direction  of  his 
ambitions,  he  will  lose  nothing  by  having  had  his  course 
aimed  at  some  definite  goal.  It  may  at  least  save  him  from 
drifting  along  in  a  haphazard  way  and  getting  through  at  last 
without  having  learned  to  do  any  particular  thing  well. 

In  judging  any  occupation  you  must  look  at  it  from  two 
distinct  viewpoints :  what  has  it  to  offer  in  qualities  that 
interest  you  ?  and  what  qualifications  have  you  to  meet  the 
necessities  of  the  occupations  ? 

You  have  the  right,  for  example,  to  ask  such  questions  as 
these  :  Is  the  occupation  an  honorable  one  and  do  those  who 
engage  in  it  have  the  respect  of  the  community?  Is  health 
or  life  endangered  by  any  part  of  the  work  which  I  shall 
be  called  on  to  do  ?  What  money  compensation  does  it 
offer?  What  chance  for  advancement  does  it  hold,  if  L 
make  good  in  it?  Can  I  continue  to  find  enjoyment  in  it 
after  the  freshness  of  early  enthusiasm  has  been  wiped  away  ? 

The  saloon  business  could  hardly  say  "  Yes  "  to  the  first 
of  the  questions.  A  powder  mill  could  not  meet  with  the 
second  requirement.     A  mail  carrier  can  never  hope  to  speak 


440 


Earning  a  Living 


enthusiastically  about  the  third.  The  messenger  boy  and 
similar  "  blind  alley "  occupations  can  offer  nothing  for 
the  fourth.  A  reporter's  berth  on  a  newspaper  or  the  endless 
demands  on  a  physician's  time  may  force  one  to  say  "  No  " 
to  the  last.  Yet  all  of  these  can  offer  some  inducements  that 
others  cannot.    With  such  a  wide  field  to  choose  from  as  a 


Courtesy  of  National  Child  Labor  Committee 
A  "Blind  Alley"  Occupation. 
The  newsboy  cannot  expect  much  in  way  of  advancement. 

boy  now  has  before  him,  the  choice  of  a  life  vocation  is  not 
•an  easy  thing  or  one  to  be  made  hastily. 

On  the  other  hand  we  can  imagine  the  vocation  asking 
these  questions  of  you  as  you  consider  entering  its  portals : 
Are  you  physically  strong,  do  you  have  endurance  even 
though  you  lack  muscle  power,  or  are  you  deficient  in  both? 
Do  you  think  quickly  or  slowly?    Are  you  accurate  and 


Opportunities  for  the  Country  Boy       441 

orderly,  careful  of  details,  or  are  you  careless  of  these  qual- 
ities, thinking  on  broad  lines  or  through  general  impressions  ? 
Do  you  prefer  work  indoors  or  out?  Are  you  original  in 
your  thinking  and  have  you  the  power  to  lead  others,  or  do 
you  prefer  to  have  some  one  tell  you  what  to  do?  Do  you 
always  want  to  "  play  it  safe  "  or  are  you  willing  to  take  a 
chance?  Are  you  looking  for  a  big  salary,  or  will  you  accept 
the  love  and  appreciation  of  others  as  a  partial  equivalent? 
Are  you  hard  to  get  acquainted  with  and  lacking  in  emotion, 
or  do  you  make  friends  easily  and  speak  freely  with  others  ? 
Are  you  looking  for  a  "  soft  thing  "  or  are  you  willing  to  work 
hard? 

The  vocation  has  as  much  right  to  expect  you  to  answer 
these  questions  honestly  as  you  have  to  inquire  what  it  has 
for  you.  The  thing  which  you  must  do  is  to  take  careful 
account  of  your  own  personal  capital  and  see  what  you  can 
put  into  any  work.  Then  you  can  approach  the  vocations 
which  have  made  some  appeal  to  you  and  try  to  determine 
which  one,  for  you,  has  most  to  offer. 

Take  the  list  of  25  occupations  which  you  made  for  the  last 
section  and  fill  out  a  table  that  will  show  the  extent  to  which  each 
one  presents  or  demands  the  following  qualities:  Social  Position, 
Healthfulness,  Salary,  Advancement,  Security,  Interest,  Ease,  Phys- 
ical Strength,  Accuracy,  Originality,  Adaptability,  Preparation. 
Classify  your  own  qualities  with  reference  to  each  of  the  last  seven 
points.  Then  compare  your  personal  classification  with  the  list 
of  occupations  and  see  how  many  of  them  you  think  you  are  fitted 
for  or  would  care  to  engage  in.  In  grading  the  different  points 
you  can  use  the  words  "High,"  "Moderate,"  and  "Low,"  or  grade 
them  still  more  minutely  if  you  wish. 

274.  Opportunities  for  the  Country  Boy.  —  Two  thirds  of 
all  the  workers  in  the  rural  districts  are  engaged  in  some 
form  of  agriculture ;  about  one  seventh  are  in  manufacturing 
and  mechanical  pursuits,  one  eighth  in  domestic  or  personal 
service,  one  twelfth  in  trade  and  transportation,  and  one 
twenty-fifth  in  the  professions.  Since  the  tendency  is  for 
at  least  four  fifths  of  all  the  people  born  in  a  state  to  spend 


442 


Earning  a  Living 


their  lives  there,  the  likelihood  that  opportunities  in  vocar 
tional  lines  will  change  in  any  short  period  is  not  great. 

Since  that  is  the  case,  the  country  will  always  make  a  far 
greater  demand  for  farmers  than  for  any  other  kind  of 
workers.  But  does  that  mean  a  narrowing  of  a  country  boy's 
opportunity  to  do  something  worth  while  in  the  world  ?  Not 
by  any  means.     In  Chapter  XXVI  we  tried  to  show  that 


Old  Grist  Mill,  New  London,  Connecticut. 
This  is  over  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  old  but  is  still  in  use. 


farm  life  can  be  made  interesting,  healthful,  and  happy  in 
a  very  high  degree.  We  shall  not  try  here  to  restate  the 
points  made  in  that  place,  but  simply  suggest  that  you  recall 
them  if  you  have  entertained  the  notion  that  the  boy  born 
in  the  country  is  handicapped. 

It  is  quite  possible  that  more  people  are  born  in  the 
country  than  are  actually  needed  to  do  its  work  except  at  the 
rush  seasons.     But  while  some  of  this  surplus  population 


The  Youth  in  the  City  443 

must  go  into  the  towns,  it  would  probably  be  better  for  all 
concerned  if  the  farmer  could  cultivate  some  side  line  which 
would  compensate  for  the  failure  of  the  farm  duties  to  demand 
at  all  times  his  fullest  energies  and  interests.  Here  is  a  chance 
for  the  country  boys  of  to-day  to  show  their  originality  and 
ingenuity. 

If  a  country  youth  goes  into  any  other  vocation  than  farm- 
ing, he  has  an  excellent  chance,  just  as  the  farmer  does,  to 
show  any  talents  for  leadership  which  he  may  possess. 
Longfellow's  line  on  Julius  Caesar  is  worth  quoting  here: 
"  Better  be  first,  he  said,  in  a  little  Iberian  village,  than  be 
second  in  Rome."  The  country  doctor,  lawyer,  minister, 
teacher,  can  stand  out  among  his  people  as  very  few  in  a 
city  can  hope  to  do.  The  city  offers  the  most  money,  and  the 
greatest  variety  of  outside  attractions,  but  in  many  respects 
the  country  will  always  lead. 

Is  there  any  special  form  of  agricultural  investment  or  activity 
which  would  be  particularly  promising  in  your  vicinity? 

275.  The  Youth  in  the  City.  —  Naturally  the  distribution 
of  occupations  in  the  urban  communities  is  far  different  from 
that  of  the  rural.  In  the  urban  communities  we  find  about 
two  fifths  of  the  workers  in  manufactures  and  mechanical 
pursuits.  Trade  and  transportation  come  next,  with  about 
one  third.  Domestic  and  personal  service  employ  one 
fifth.  The  professions  have  one  twentieth  of  all,  and  agri- 
culture the  small  remainder. 

There  is  likely  to  be  great  variation  among  the  cities. 
Some  have  one  industry  developed  so  far  beyond  everything 
else  that  even  the  schools  can  properly  give  special  prepara- 
tion in  their  own  courses  for  graduates  who  go  into  the  com- 
munity's favorite  vocation.  Other  cities  have  their  industrial 
interests  distributed  over  a  wider  field.  There  the  boy  has 
a  wider  range  of  choice  to  make  up  for  the  inability  of  his 
school  to  give  him  a  detailed  instruction  in  a  trade. 

Possibly  because  their  work  seems  more  like  "  book- 


444  Earning  a  Living 

learning,"  the  schools  of  all  the  larger  communities  give 
special  instruction  to  bookkeepers  and  stenographers.  But 
printing,  woodworking,  metalworking,  and  the  like,  are  being 
steadily  introduced  in  school  courses.  Every  effort  is  now 
being  made  in  the  best  schools  to  find  out  what  the  boy  is 
fitted  for,  and  to  bring  representative  business  men  into  close 
contact  with  the  schools,  so  that  the  pupils  may  get  at  first 
hand  some  acquaintance  with  the  great  vocations  of  to-day. 
Many  great  businesses,  like  the  Westinghouse  Works  near 
Pittsburgh  and  the  General  Electric  Company  at  Schenec- 
tady, have  special  training  courses  into  which  they  take  a 
boy  when  he  graduates  from  high  school  or  college.  There 
they  teach  him  the  main  features  of  their  business.  In  cities 
like  Cincinnati  business  firms  employ  on  a  part  time  basis 
pupils  who  are  still  enrolled ^as  regular  members  of  the  schools. 
It  looks  as  if  it  would  be  the  boy's  own  fault  if  he  went  out  of 
school  without  at  least  having  had  a  chance  to  think  definitely 
about  his  fife  vocation. 

In  your  own  community  what  occupations  offer  the  most  or  the 
best  opportunities  to  one  who  is  just  starting  to  earn  his  own  living? 
Do  the  majority  of  young  people  in  your  community  seem  satisfied 
to  settle  down  there,  or  do  they  want  to  go  somewhere  else?    Why? 

276.  Training  the  Girl.  —  Since  nearly  half  the  people  in 
the  world  are  women,  and  in  a  few  of  our  states  more  than 
half,  it  is  a  piece  of  folly  not  to  give  serious  thought  to  the 
training  of  our  girls.  The  fact  that  a  considerable  majority 
of  the  pupils  in  American  high  schools  to-day  are  girls  makes 
it  hard  for  us  to  realize  that  three  quarters  of  a  century  ago, 
a  girl  was  not  expected  to  have  more  than  a  grammar  school 
education,  and  was  not  permitted  to  obtain  a  degree  from  any 
important  college. 

But  the  question  now  rises,  In  opening  the  doors  of  our 
schools  freely  to  girls  have  we  merely  given  them  a  chance  to 
learn  books  and  to  acquire  a  distaste  for  the  things  in  life 
which  were  once  the  center  of  a  woman's  interests  ?  Every 
year  sees  women  going  into  the  field  of  business  more  exten- 


Training  the  Girl  445 

sively.  The  Great  War  has  brought  them  into  places  always 
before  rilled  by  men,  from  many  of  which  they  are  not  likely 
to  withdraw. 

Yet  the  hard,  cold  facts  of  the  Census  Bureau  show  us  that 
only  one  woman  in  sixteen  lives  and  dies  an  old  maid,  and  that 
nearly  half  of  them  marry  before  they  are  25.  Are  they  being 
trained  as  they  should  be  for  the  important  services  which 
men  cannot  do? 

The  answer  to  this  question  is  not  so  easy  as  it  looks. 
Andrew  Carnegie's  advice  to  "  Put  all  your  eggs  in  one 
basket  and  watch  that  basket  "  is  not  wholly  feasible  here ; 
for  while  they  are  waiting  for  that  basket  which  most  of  them 
expect  to  watch,  they  must  needs  have  some  means  of  employ- 
ing their  time.  Fortunately  many  after  leaving  school  find 
enough  duties  in  their  own  home  to  keep  them  reasonably 
occupied.  But  many  must  find  their  work  outside,  and  for 
that  they  need  training.  Others,  even  when  they  are 
married,  must  help  somewhat  in  the  support  of  the  family ; 
and  some  go  into  outside  work  from  choice. 

The  upshot  of  the  whole  matter  is  this  :  Training  in  home 
making  —  in  cooking,  sewing,  and  all  the  details  of  home 
management  —  will  never  be  out  of  place  for  any  woman.  It 
ought  to  form  a  part  of  every  girl's  course  in  school  at  some 
time.  She  ought  to  have  equal  preparation  with  the  boy  in 
great  subjects  of  social  value  such  as  this  which  we  are  now 
studying.  She  should  have  equal  opportunity  to  pursue 
courses  of  advanced  learning.  If  she  wishes,  she  should  have 
special  vocational  training  outside  of  the  lines  of  home 
making. 

Our  commercial  classes  in  the  public  schools  are  composed, 
as  a  rule,  largely  of  girls.  As  stenographers  and  office- 
workers  there  is  more  room  for  them  than  for  boys,  because 
their  wage  standard  is  lower.  Sometimes  such  positions 
develop  into  well-paid  secretaryships.  One  line  of  occupa- 
tion which  is  wholly  reserved  for  girls  is  that  of  telephone 
operator.    Even  for  this  the  telephone  companies  wish  to 


446 


Earning  a  Living 


have  high  school  graduates,  for  a  certain  mental  alertness 
which  not  every  one  possesses  is  an  absolute  essential  in  the 
work. 

The  range  of  advancement  in  girls'  vocations,  then,  is 
limited  by  the  fact  that  most  of  them  sooner  or  later  go  into 
the  one  greatest  vocation  for  women.  A  few  occupations  are 
barred  to  women  because  of  physical  reasons.  But  most  of 
the  rest  are  open  to  a  woman  who  has  determination  and 


Courtesy  of  Am.  Tel.  &  Tel.  Co. 

Interior  of  a  Large  "Cfntral"  Telephone  Office. 
Girls  are  preferred  to  men  for  the  kind  of  work  required  here. 

courage.  The  girl  should  study  her  personal  qualifications 
just  as  accurately  as  the  boy,  and  make  her  choice  with 
just  as  much  seriousness.  She  cannot  tell,  any  more  than 
the  boy,  into  what  emergencies  she  may  at  some  time  be 
cast.  , 

Take  the  list  of  occupations  which  we  have  already  studied. 
Add,  if  necessary,  eight  or  ten  which  women  particularly  enter, 
and  judge  them  with  reference  to  their  suitability  for  women,  li 
you  are  a  girl,  make  personal  application  also. 


Comparative  Costs  447 

277.  Occupations  and  Wages.1— You  will  find  that  at  least 
forty  per  cent  of  the  people  named  in  a  city  directory  are 
recorded  as  being  laborers  or  clerks.  True,  such  a  classifica- 
tion is  not  at  all  accurate,  for  great  variety  exists  among  the 
people  in  these  groups. 

But  it  is  clear  that  with  so  many  wage  earners  classified  in 
this  way,  the  average  income  cannot  be  very  high.  $2.50 
to  $3  a  day  for  the  year  round  would  be  a  generous  figure  for 
this  group,  and  that  would  mean  a  yearly  income  of  $750  to 
$900.  Since  the  studies  of  Professor  Nearing,  based  on  state 
government  reports  of  a  few  years  ago,  showed  that  the  aver- 
age income  of  wage  earners  in  the  states  of  Massachusetts, 
Kansas,  Wisconsin,  and  New  Jersey  was  under  $600,  it  is 
entirely  safe  to  assume  that  with  all  the  rise  in  wages  that  has 
marked  the  last  few  years,  the  average  income  for  the  whole 
year  of  workingmen  to-day  cannot  be  much  over  $1000. 

Wages  by  the  day  or  hour  for  skilled  laborers  such  as  car- 
penters, plumbers,  and  bricklayers  have  advanced  to  a  high 
figure.  But  when  we  consider  that  a  carpenter  or  a  brick- 
layer may  have  to  "  lay  off  "  without  work  for  days  or  weeks 
at  a  time,  his  80  or  90  cents  an  hour  for  an  8-hour  day  does 
not  put  him  so  far  beyond  our  general  estimate  after  all. 
People  with  large  incomes  are  so  few  relatively  that  we  shall 
ignore  them  here. 

278.  Comparative  Costs.  —  Every  student  of  the  subject 
knows  that  all  classes  of  people  spend  very  much  more  than 
they  did  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  Our  wants  are 
more  numerous.  We  seek  more  variety  and  change  in  our 
daily  life,  and  wish  people  to  do  things  for  us  which  once 
everybody  expected  to  do  for  himself.  Vacations  and  de- 
livery wagons  were  once  almost  unknown. 

Almost  every  one  realizes,  too,  that  the  cost  of  living  in  the 
country  is  considerably  less  than  in  the  city.     Many  of  the 

1  Statements  in  this  and  the  following  sections  in  regard  to  wages  and 
prices  may  not  be  accurate  for  any  particular  year  or  city.  In  late  years 
changes  have  been  many  and  sudden. 


448 


Earning  a  Living 


staple  articles  of  food,  such  as  flour,  meat,  and  all  kinds  of 
package  goods  and  canned  goods  cost  no  less  in  the  country, 
but  the  people  rake  more  of  their  own  food  products.  Milk 
can  be  bought  directly  from  the  man  who  owns  the  cow, 
and  butter,  eggs,  and  cheese  are  for  the  same  reason  less 
expensive. 

Besides,  there  is  less  expense  for  showy  or  fashionable 
clothes  in  order  to  keep  up  with  somebody  else.     Bargain 


A  Hotel  of  the  Old  Days. 

You  could  get  a  large,  neat  room  and  three  good  meals  all  for  not  more 
than  a  dollar  and  a  half  a  day. 

sales,  to  get  people  to  buy  what  they  do  not  need,  a  nickel  for 
carfare  every  time  you  go  any  distance,  expensive  theaters 
or  frequent  attendance  at  cheap  ones  —  these  are  missing 
from  the  country  man's  expense  bill,  to  his  decided  advantage. 
There  is  a  difference  between  places,  too.  Rents  in  New 
York  and  Pittsburgh  are  noticeably  higher  than  in  Phila- 
delphia or  Baltimore.  In  the  latter  cities  garden  products 
and  other  articles  for  the  table  come  from  nearer  farms,  and 
so  cost  less.  Wherever  the  total  amount  of  money  in  the 
community  is  great,  the  price  of  almost  everything  will  be 


The  Rise  in  Prices  449 

higher  than  elsewhere,  even  though  that  amount  be  not  at  all 
evenly  distributed.  Study  your  own  community  and  see 
whether  it  has  any  peculiarities  which  will  make  you  pay 
more  or  less  to  live  there  than  somewhere  else.  Almost  every 
place  has  some  distinctive  quality  or  condition. 

279.  The  Rise  in  Prices.  —  All  statistics  show  that,  apart 
from  the  economic  overturn  caused  by  the  European  war,  the 
prices  of  practically  everything  have  risen  in  less  than  twenty 
years  from  fifteen  per  cent  to  over  one  hundred  per  cent  in  all 


Hotel,  Old  Point  Comfort,  Virginia. 

Contrast  this  with  the  old  hotel  shown  on  the  previous  page,  with  regard  to 
appearance,  probable  comfort,  and  expense. 

the  leading  civilized  nations.  It  is  not  a  peculiarly  American 
problem,  though  the  rise  is  more  marked  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada  than  in  Europe.  What  is  the  reason  for  it? 
Some  one  says,  the  middleman.  Another  says,  the  labor 
unions  have  forced  high  wages  and  the  trusts  have  forced 
up  the  prices  of  their  products.  Still  another  urges,  specu- 
lation and  extravagant  living.  Another  insists  that  the 
tariff  is  to  blame. 

Professor  Clark,  in  his  little  book,  "  The  Cost  of  Living," 
contends  that  none  of  these  causes  can  have  more  than  a 


450 


Earning  a  Living 


slight  effect  on  the  total  movement  of  prices,  even  though 
in  certain  cases  some  of  them  seem  to  have  been  the  direct 
reason  for  a  rise.  He  points  out  that  since  the  rise  is  not 
peculiarly  an  American  problem  we  must  look  for  some  cause 
of  more  than  local  importance.  He  declares  that  the  two 
causes  which  seem  to  be  most  positively  at  work  are  the 
exhausting  of  natural  resources  and  the  increase  in  the  supply 
of  gold. 


Now  and 

Forty  Years  Ago 

"Those  Were  the  Happy  Days 

» 

Mat  24,  1877    Mat  24,  1917 

Butter,  lb. 

.14 

.36| 

Eggs,  doz. 

.10* 

.34* 

Cheese,  lb. 

.12* 

.39 

Potatoes,  bush. 

1.15 

3.10 

Beef,  shortribs,  lb. 

.06* 

.20* 

Turkeys,  alive,  lb. 

.09 

.24 

Fowls,  alive,  lb. 

.08 

.21* 

Lard,  lb. 

.10 

.22 

Newspaper  Clipping. 


The  price  of  everything  is  simply  the  value  that  we  put  on 
it  in  exchange  for  gold,  since  we  have  made  gold  the  standard 
of  our  money  system,  and  this  is  determined  by  the  law  of 
supply  and  demand.  If  there  is  enough  of  a  commodity  in 
existence  to  give  everybody  all  he  wants,  no  one  will  have  to 
give  anything  in  exchange  for  it.  But  if  everybody  would 
like  to  have  a  commodity  of  which  the  available  stock  is 
small,  those  who  can  or  will  give  the  most  in  exchange  for  it 
are  the  ones  who  are  going  to  get  it. 

We  can  easily  see  that  the  wasting  of  our  natural  resources 
and  the  reduction  in  the  relative  supply  of  them  cannot  help 
causing  prices  to  rise  for  the  commodities  which  depend 
directly  on  them.  Since  the  amount  of  gold  in  the  world  has 
materially  increased  in  recent  years,  more  of  it  will  be  required 
in  exchange  for  a  given  amount  of  something  else.     The 


Standards  of  Living  451 

ordinary  purchaser  will  not  bother  about  figuring  it  out  that 
way,  but  he  gets  the  result  in  the  higher  price  he  pays. 

280.  Effects  of  High  Prices.  —  Are  high  prices  necessarily 
an  evil?  The  common  man  would  say  "  Yes  "  with  haste 
and  fervency.  Indirectly  good  may  come,  however,  for  social 
improvements  and  readjustments  of  wages  and  the  like  more 
often  accompany  period  of  high  prices  than  any  other  time. 
If  wages  increase  in  anything  like  a  corresponding  proportion, 
the  earner  has  more  to  spend,  and  can  spend  it  for  more  dif- 
ferent things.  Investigations  and  our  own  general  knowl- 
edge tell  us  that  wages  do  increase  when  periods  of  high 
prices  are  prolonged,  but  the  wage  increase  tags  along  behind 
the  rise  in  prices,  and  seldom  is  as  great  in  proportion. 

Yet  it  appears  that  the  average  laboring  man  of  American 
family  lives  better  than  ever  before,  and  is  more  independent. 
The  persons  whose  salaries  are  fixed  are  more  subject  to 
inconvenience  from  a  rise  in  prices  than  any  others  in  the 
community.  The  man  who  works  by  the  day  is  usually  in  a 
far  better  position  to  ask  and  receive  an  increase  than  the 
one  who  is  paid  by  the  month  or  the  year.  Those  who  have  a 
fixed  income  from  bonds  and  similar  investments  also  have 
to  try  to  make  it  cover  a  great  deal  more  ground,  and  it  will 
not  always  stand  the  strain. 

281.  Standards  of  Living.  —  What  ought  every  family 
to  be  able  to  have  in  return  for  its  labor?  In  other  words, 
what  is  the  standard  of  living  which  every  family  ought  to 
maintain?  What  proportion  of  the  necessities  and  comforts 
of  life  are  its  members  able  to  enjoy?  We  may  reasonably 
expect  a  family  whose  members  constantly  have  to  appear 
before  the  public  in  one  way  or  another  and  who  have  a  wide 
circle  of  prominent  acquaintances  to  maintain  a  higher  stand- 
ard than  others,  but  there  are  some  things  that  every  family 
ought  to  have. 

Food  in  sufficient  amount  and  variety  to  maintain  good 
health ;  clothing  to  the  same  degree,  and  neatly  kept ;  hous- 
ing, to  the  same  extent,  with  provision  for  a  real  home  life ; 


452 


Earning  a  Living 


savings  for  doctor's  bills,  insurance  or  protection  against  the 
inevitable  "  rainy  day  "  ;  some  little  amount  for  recreation, 
culture,  and  the  like  —  surely  it  is  not  too  much  to  wish  that 
every  family  in  the  land  should  be  provided  with  all  these. 
Can  it  be  done  ? 

Investigators  in  New  York  and  other  cities  have  been  con- 
vinced that  not  less  than  $1000  a  year  is  generally  needed 
to  keep  a  family  of  five  supplied  with  the  essentials  of  a  decent 


sip*. 


Old-Fashioned  Covered  Bridge. 

Two  mills,  a  dwelling-house,  and  a  church  also  appear.  This  is  the 
same  community  that  was  shown  on  page  5.  How  would  you  expect 
the  standard  of  living  in  that  place  and  in  the  best  sections  of  Boston,  for 
example,  to  differ? 

living.  Five  is  the  average  membership  of  a  family,  the 
country  over.  Compare  this  statement  with  our  own 
generous  estimate  of  the  income  of  the  average  family,  and 
see  what  your  conclusion  is. 

A  Chicago  public  official  once  advertised  himself  by  ex- 
perimenting to  see  whether  a  group  could  be  given  healthful 
bills  of  fare  for  not  more  than  40  cents  a  day  apiece.  Thou- 
sands of  housewives  could  have  told  him  beforehand  that  his 
time  was  wasted,  for  whatever  his  conclusions  might  be, 


The  Family  Budget 


453 


they  did  not  have  40  cents  apiece  to  spend  for  food  every  day 

in  their  families.     Our  study  of  the  slums  has  shown  us  all  the 

proof  we  need  of  this  fact,  and  millions  of  families  not  in  the 

slums    must    be   in   the 

same     condition    unless 

figures   tell  us  frightful 

lies. 

As  for  savings,  how 
many  families  with  in- 
comes under  $1000  can 
hope  to  save  anything? 
A  New  York  investigator 
concluded  that  the  aver- 
age New  Yorker  of  mod- 
erate means  —  not  the 
poor  —  spends  forty-five 
per  cent  of  his  income  for 
food,  twenty  per  cent  for 
rent,  fourteen  for  cloth- 
ing, and  twenty-one  per 
cent  for  other  miscel- 
laneous expenses.  The 
Canadian  Department  of 
Labor  calculated  that  in 
1913  a  family  of  five 
getting  $800  a  year  in- 
come   spent   each  week 

about  $7.70  for  food,  $4.08  for  rent,  and  $2.03  for  fuel  and 
light. 

Do  a  little  arithmetic  and  see  how  much  they  had  left  for  amuse- 
ment, culture,  charity,  doctor's  bills,  and  savings.  What  is  the 
moral  ? 

282.  The  Family  Budget.  —  Investigators  have  calculated 
that  an  ideal  division  of  a  family's  expense  account  would  be  as 
follows :  thirty  per  cent  for  food,  twenty  per  cent  for  rent  or 
taxes  and  repairs,  and  carfare,  ten  per  cent  for  operating  ex- 


Poplar  Trees  in  the  Fens,  Boston. 


454  Earning  a  Living 

penses,  including  heat,  light,  ice,  water,  laundry,  household 
help,  and  new  furniture  and  equipment,  fifteen  per  cent  for 
clothes,  and  twenty-five  per  cent  for  higher  life,  including 
books  and  magazines,  travel,  church  and  charity,  savings, 
special  care  of  health,  recreation  and  entertainment. 

How  does  this  estimate  agree  with  the  New  York  man's  estimate 
which  we  quoted  or  with  the  Canadian  government's  figures?  If 
they  disagree  from  the  ideal  budget,  where  is  the  cut  likely  to  be 
made  first? 

By  the  way,  do  you  think  you  or  your  family  could  tell  how 
much  of  your  income  goes  for  each  of  these  items  or  would 
you  have  to  guess  at  it  ?  How  many  people  of  your  acquaint- 
ance keep  a  careful  account  of  their  income  and  outgo? 
Do  your  answers  to  these  questions  suggest  to  you  any 
possible  reason  why  the  cost  of  living  is  such  a  worry  to  so 
many  families  ? 

How  much  does  the  ordinary  high  school  or  college  boy  or  girl 
know  about  the  expenses  of  his  own  family?  Do  you  think  a 
father  is  doing  just  the  right  thing  by  them  if  he  is  nothing  more 
than  a  walking  checkbook  to  them  in  matters  affecting  family 
finance?  Make  a  detailed  estimate  of  the  expenses  necessary  to 
clothe  and  feed  and  otherwise  provide  for  a  family  of  five  for  a  year 
in  moderate  comfort.  Is  this  more  or  less  than  you  and  your  fam- 
ily spend  ? 

283.  Home  Management.  —  The  increasing  supply  of 
gold  may  be  the  reason  for  a  long-continued  and  steady  rise 
in  general  price  lists,  but  bad  management  of  the  home 
explains  more  frequently  why  families  are  bankrupt,  espe- 
cially those  of  incomes  above  the  poorest.  The  underlying 
principles  of  sound  home  management  should  be  just  as 
much  a  part  of  one?s  education  as  a  knowledge  of  the  English 
language.  There  is  no  better  place  than  the  home  to  apply 
the  arithmetic  that  is  taught  in  the  school.  That  is  why, 
mainly,  we  have  included  this  topic  in  our  study  of  Civics ; 
we  fear  many  will  never  get  it  anywhere  else. 

What  can  a  school  do  directly  to  encourage  saving? 


Questions  455 

The  government  can  do  very  little  in  comparison  with 
individual  common  sense  and  judgment  in  settling  the  prob- 
lem of  the  cost  of  living  for  any  special  family.  It  can 
investigate  and  punish  when  speculators  break  the  laws  in 
regard  to  restraint  of  trade  or  when  dealers  He  about  the 
quality  of  goods  they  sell.  But  families  that  use  judgment 
about  the  things  they  buy,  that  try  to  avoid  waste,  and  that 
refuse  to  buy  when  prices  are  unreasonable,  can  largely  con- 
trol their  own  expense  accounts.  When  we  have  done  that, 
and  still  the  things  we  must  have  are  going  out  of  reach,  we 
may  rightly  expect  the  government  to  protect  itself  and  its 
citizens  by  direct  interference. 

What  forms  of  savings  are  most  desirable  for  the  ordinary  family? 
Is  it  desirable  that  every  family  should  carry  life  insurance  ?  Point 
out  instances  where  unnecessary  expenses  could  be  avoided  by 
your  own  family  or  those  of  your  acquaintance, 

QUESTIONS 

To  what  extent  should  a  pupil  make  up  his  mind  in  school 
about  his  life  career  ?  Why  should  every  boy  and  girl  give  attention 
to  this  topic?  Give  facts  to  show  the  proportion  of  people  who 
are  really  keeping  society  going. 

Mention  five  characteristics  which  one  should  keep  in  mind 
in  considering  any  particular  vocation.  Compare  them  in  impor- 
tance as  they  impress  you.  Under  what  circumstances  would  you 
rate  the  choice  of  a  vocation  to  be  most  easily  made,  in  past  times 
or  now,  by  the  country  youth  or  the  city  youth?  How  is  your 
community  situated  with  reference  to  offering  choices  of  occupa- 
tions to  its  young  people?  Study  it  and  its  occupations  carefully 
in  this  regard. 

Compare  the  proportion  of  workers  in  the  various  fields  of  occu- 
pations in  the  country  districts.  Do  you  recommend  that,  as  a 
rule,  country  boys  and  girls  should  be  advised  to  stay  on  the  farm  ? 
Compare  the  percentage  of  workers  in  the  different  fields  in  the  city 
with  the  records  for  the  rural  communities. 

Should  a  boy  endeavor  to  fit  himself  for  more  than  one  occupa- 
tion ?  Should  all  girls  secure  definite,  specific  training  in  the  duties 
of  the  home?  Should  a  girl  fit  herself  for  some  other  occupation 
than  homemaking  as  well  as  in  that  line  ?     Why,  in  each  case  ? 


456  Earning  a  Living 

What  are  the  qualities  demanded  for  success  in  each  of  the  great 
fields  of  human  activity?  Are  any  qualities  common  to  all?  In 
what  directions,  in  normal  times,  do  you  think  there  is  now  the 
greatest  opportunity? 

How  do  the  wages  in  the  different  fields  of  occupations  compare  ? 
What  figure  would  you  estimate  as  surely  high  enough  to  cover 
the  average  wages  of  the  American  workingman  to-day?  Do  the 
statements  of  the  text  agree  with  what  your  own  investigations 
discover?     What  is  meant  by  seasonal  trades? 

Compare  the  cost  of  living  now  and  fifty  years  or  more  ago. 
Compare  the  cost  in  country  and  city.  Why  should  there  be  any 
difference  between  communities  ?  What  explanations  can  you  give 
for  the  increasing  cost  of  commodities?  What  relation  exists, 
if  any,  between  wages  and  the  prices  of  goods?  Can  any  good 
result  from  a  period  of  general  high  prices  ? 

Should  all  families  undertake  to  live  equally  well?  What  items 
ought  every  family  to  be  able  to  supply  to  its  members?  How 
large  an  income  is  necessary  to  make  this  possible  ?  What  propor- 
tion of  family  incomes  commonly  goes  for  the  main  items  in  the  family 
budget  as  shown  by  New  York  and  Canadian  investigators?  In 
studying  your  own  family  budget  did  you  find  the  results  to  agree 
with  those  which  are  quoted  ?  How  far  should  every  family  pro- 
vide insurance  or  other  forms  of  savings  ? 

What  reforms  might  many  families  undertake  which  would 
better  their  standard  of  living?  Where  does  the  fault  rest  when  so 
many  families  have  hard  work  to  manage  their  finances?  When,  if 
at  aU,  is  it  the  business  of  the  government  to  take  a  hand  in  regu- 
lating the  cost  of  living  ? 

SPECIAL  TOPICS 

Definite  studies  of  special  occupations  concerning  which  the 
members  of  the  class  can  get  reliable  advice  should  form  a  consider- 
able part  of  the  research  work  done  in  connection  with  this  chapter. 
Concrete  statements  of  the  pupils'  own  views  and  notions  will 
do  more  to  show  where  counsel  is  needed  than  many  pages  of  sta- 
tistics and  tables  which  might  be  given  in  this  text. 

What  It  Cost  to  Live  When  Father  Was  a  Boy. 

Grandmother's  Employments  and  Amusements. 

The  Business    Girl. 

Our  Family  Budget. 

What  to  Do  with  Our  Savings. 

Life  Insurance  :   Its  Forms  and  Importance, 

The  Cost  of  the  Tobacco  Habit. 


CHAPTER  XXX 

EPFOETS  TOWARD  BETTERMENT 


Our  duty  is  to  cleanse,  to  reconsider,  to  restore,  to  correct  the  evil 
without  impairing  the  good,  to  purify  and  humanize  every  process 
of  our  common  life  without  weakening  or  sentimentalizing  it. 

—  Wilson- 

If  we  fail,  the  cause  of  free  self-government  throughout  the  world 
will  rock  to  its  foundations;  and  therefore  our  responsibility  is 
heavy,  to  ourselves,  to  the  world  as  it  is  to-day,  and  to  generations 
yet  unborn.  —  Roosevelt.       

284.  Sharing  Responsibility.  —  Employers  are  not  all 
hard-hearted  money-making  machines.  Some  of  them  feel 
as  did  former  president  Baer  of  the  Reading  Railroad  that 
God  has  intrusted  them  with  the  administration  of  certain 
duties  in  the  development  of  the  nation,  although  they  usually 
express  the  idea  more  tactfully  than  he  did.  That  the  men 
and  women  who  work  for  them  are  something  more  than 
machines  is  a  thought  which  will  naturally  come  to  such  an 
employer. 

To  recognize  the  fact  that  the  workman  who  uses  his  hands 
is  a  co-laborer  in  the  conduct  of  the  business,  and  to  induce 
him  to  work  for  his  own  good  as  well  as  for  his  employer's,  a 
few  firms  have  established  a  system  of  profit  sharing.  This 
may  take  the  form  of  a  bonus  in  addition  to  the  regular  wages 
of  the  employee  or,  as  is  often  the  case  with  some  European 
firms,  of  a  payment  received  after  he  reaches  a  certain  age. 

The  United  States  Steel  Corporation  reserves  shares  of 
stock  which  the  employees  may  buy  and  so  acquire  an  interest 
in  the  firm.  Henry  Ford's  plan,  which  is  sometimes  called 
profit  sharing,  consists  rather  in  the  payment  of  a  uniformly 

457 


458  Efforts  Toward  Betterment 

high  standard  of  wages,  with  the  insistence  that  the  workmen 
shall  maintain  their  own  homes,  if  they  are  married,  and 
observe  proper  habits  of  life. 

Profit  sharing  has  not  taken  a  strong  hold  in  this  country. 
Labor  unions  are  strongly  opposed  to  it,  for  they  believe  it 
tends  to  make  the  laborer  look  at  the  industrial  situation 
too  much  from  the  employer's  viewpoint.  They  say  that 
profit  sharing  and  welfare  work,  of  which  we  shall  speak,  are 
simply  forms  of  enlightened  selfishness,  and  that  the  em- 
ployer makes  use  of  them  because  they  will  make  his  men 
more  contented,  so  that  he  can  get  more  work  out  of  them. 

Another  idea  now  much  talked  about  is  to  allow  represen- 
tatives of  the  workers  to  have  a  voice  in  fixing  their  hours  of 
work,  wages,  and  the  like.  Some  forms  of  this  "  industrial 
democracy  "  are  working  very  successfully.  The  plan  looks 
upon  labor  and  capital  as  partners  in  business.  If  both 
sides  are  reasonable,  there  will  be  no  excuse  for  strikes 
or  lockouts  when  such  a  system  is  in  operation. 

285.  Welfare  Work.  —  Welfare  work  is  much  more  com- 
mon in  the  United  States  than  profit  sharing.  By  this  we 
mean  extra  services  beyond  the  payment  of  wages  which  an 
employer  provides  for  the  health  and  comfort  and  pleasure 
of  the  employees.  Where  this  is  practiced,  rooms  for  rest 
and  recreation,  libraries,  gymnasiums,  and  even  dormitories 
are  provided,  either  in  connection  with  the  factory  or  in 
separate  buildings. 

Both  motives  —  a  real  interest  in  the  personal  welfare  of 
the  employees,  and  a  desire  to  keep  them  contented  —  no 
doubt  influence  many  employers.  The  laborer  has  fallen 
into  the  habit  of  "  looking  a  gift  horse  in  the  mouth,"  and 
perhaps  sometimes  stopping  short  of  justice  in  recognizing 
the  good  intentions  of  his  employer.  The  establishment  of 
company  stores  and  tenements  is  praiseworthy  unless  the 
employees  are  forced  to  make  use  of  them.  Then  the  em- 
ployee may  be  reduced  to  something  not  much  better  than  a 
condition  of  servitude. 


Cooperative  Movements 


459 


286.  Codperative  Movements.  —  As  a  means  of  reducing 
the  cost  of  living,  several  forms  of  cooperative  stores  have 
been  tried  in  Great  Britain  with  much  success,  both  for  pro- 
ducing and  for  purchasing  common  commodities.  Somehow 
Americans  find  the  country  too  large  or  lack  the  cooperative 
spirit  necessary  to  make  these  things  work  here.     They  do 


Roof  Garden  for  Employed  Girls. 


exist,  of  course,  but  not  in  great  numbers.  If  several  could 
combine  to  buy  things  at  wholesale  prices  and  distribute  the 
saving  among  the  whole  group,  it  would  seem  to  be  worth  the 
trouble  and  expense  of  maintaining  a  store  for  the  benefit 
of  the  group. 

But  the  Larkin  Soap  Company's  premium  business  and  the 
immense  catalogues  of  Sears,  Roebuck  &  Company  and  other 
"  mail-order  "  houses  seem  to  appeal  more  to  those  whom  we 
might  hope  to  interest  in  cooperative  ventures.    The  "  chain 


460 


Efforts  Toward  Betterment 


Bargains  ? 


stores/'  like  the  United  Cigar  Stores,  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
Tea  Company,  and  Woolworth's  "five  and  ten"  establish- 
ments gratify  people's 
craze  for  bargains,  and 
make  the  prospect  of 
the  cooperative  store 
rather  dark. 

Business     cooperation 
is,     therefore,     in      the 
United    States,    limited. 
A  number  of  dairies  and 
butter-making    concerns 
are     operating     success- 
fully  on   this    principle. 
The      California      Fruit 
Growers'  Exchange  is  a 
cooperative  organization  for  marketing  the  products  of  the 
"  ranches  "  of  its  members.    But  the  whole  number  of  such 
activities  is  not  great. 

However,  there  are  mutual  fire  insurance  companies  which 
reduce  the  cost  of  insurance  considerably  by  dividing  it  among 
their  members  in  proportion  to  actual  cost,  rather  than  let 
some  outsiders  make  a  profit  in  it.  Building  and  loan  associa- 
tions, which  issue  stock  and  let  their  members  borrow  money 
in  accordance  with  the  number  of  shares  that  they  hold,  have 
been  very  helpful  in  enabling  people  to  pay  for  a  house  by 
installments  and  thus  become  property  owners,  when  other- 
wise they  could  not  have  done  so. 

Quite  a  number  of  fraternal  orders  have  been  formed  for 
the  purpose  of  paying  sick,  accident,  and  death  benefits,  but 
many  states  regard  them  as  unsound  financially  and  pass 
laws  which  show  much  more  favor  to  private  insurance  com- 
panies. 

Why  are  the  country  storekeeper  and  the  small  city  grocer  so 
violently  opposed  to  the  "mail-order"  house  and  the  "chain 
store  "  ?    Are  they  justified  in  their  opposition  ? 


Theories  of  Governmental  Attitude       461 

287.  Theories  of  Governmental  Attitude.  —  The  prevail- 
ing notion  a  century  or  more  ago  in  regard  to  the  relation  of 
governments  to  industry  was  that  known  as  the  laissez-faire 
policy,  which  might  be  translated  freely,  Let  them  alone. 
The  teaching  of  the  great  economist  Adam  Smith,  and  the 
political  views  of  our  own  Thomas  Jefferson,  were  of  this 
kind.  "  That  government  is  best  which  governs  least,' '  was 
Jefferson's  phrasing.  The  motive  of  these  men  was  excellent 
—  that  each  person  should  be  unhindered  in  development 
along  the  lines  that  suited  him  best. 

But  they  seemed  not  to  realize  that  their  doctrine  was  the 
doctrine  of  the  strongest,  and  that  if  some  authority  did  not 
protect  the  weaker  members  of  society,  there  was  an  end 
to  the  hope  of  their  ever  rising.  Social  and  industrial  war- 
fare would  be  the  constant  and  inevitable  outcome  of  such  a 
policy.  The  rights  of  the  individual,  whose  liberty  Jefferson 
was  so  deeply  interested  in,  cannot  be  preserved  by  such  a 
government  unless  every  individual  is  equally  strong,  and  it 
is  foolish  to  expect  that  such  a  condition  can  ever  exist. 

In  place  of  this  individualistic  attitude,  we  now  lay  stress 
on  the  social  duty  of  governments.  See  to  it,  we  say,  that 
every  one  shall  have  an  equal  chance.  If  the  exercise  by  one 
man  or  one  corporation  of  entire  freedom  of  action  is  going 
to  promote  the  interests  of  the  whole  community,  let  him  go 
ahead.  But  if  entire  freedom  of  action  on  his  part  deprives 
others  of  rights  to  which  they  are  entitled,  he  must  be  re- 
strained. 

It  is  on  this  principle  that  we  believe  governments  should 
say  to  the  factory  owner,  You  must  keep  your  establishment 
clean  and  equip  it  with  fire  escapes,  even  if  it  does  cost  you 
something ;  and  to  the  saloon  keeper,  If  your  business  harms 
the  community  without  giving  it  anything  of  importance  in 
return,  it  must  be  closed  up ;  and  to  the  monopolist,  If  we 
allow  you  to  enjoy  this  monopoly,  we  must  have  the  privilege 
of  supervising  it  so  as  to  be  sure  that  the  people  are  helped 
and  not  hindered  by  it.    The  "  police  power  "  of  the  state  — 


462  Efforts  Toward  Betterment 

its  right  and  duty  to  protect  the  life,  the  health,  and  the 
morals  of  its  citizens  —  means  more  to-day  than  ever. 

288.  Extent  of  Government  Regulation.  —  How  far  the 
government  should  interfere  with  the  natural  course  of  busi- 
ness development  in  order  to  conserve  the  welfare  of  all,  is  a 
vexed  question.  President  Roosevelt  was  laughed  at  by 
some  people  for  suggesting  that  there  are  good  trusts  as  well 
as  bad  ones,  but  he  may  not  have  been  far  wrong,  after  all. 
What  does  a  labor  union  aim  to  do  except  to  control  labor 


-Tj* 


Geyser  Basin,  Yellowstone  Park. 

in  its  own  interest  just  as  truly  as  the  trust  wishes  to  master 
capital  in  its  own  service?  Should  a  labor  union  be  treated 
as  a  trust  if  it  does  the  same  kind  of  things  ?  The  friends  of 
the  unions  say  there  is  a  difference  between  them,  and  declare 
that  it  is  wrong  to  treat  them  alike.  May  there  not  also  be 
differences  among  trusts? 

But  if  there  are,  and  the  government  is  going  to  make 
distinctions,  it  must  know  more  about  them  than  it  does  now. 
Just  as  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  is  making  a 
"  physical  valuation  "  of  the  railroads  so  that  it  may  have 
some  definite  information  on  which  to  act,  so  the  state  and 


Government  Ownership  463 

national  governments  might  properly  learn  very  much  more 
than  they  yet  know  about  the  methods  and  purposes  of  busi- 
ness concerns. 

Some  people  have  even  proposed  that  the  government 
should  attempt  to  settle  upon  a  fair  price  for  the  necessities 
of  life  and  not  permit  any  dealer  to  charge  more  than  this 
price.  No  government  has  thus  far  undertaken  this  except 
as  a  war  measure  to  prevent  speculators  taking  advantage  of 
the  distress  of  the  people.  Some  of  the  opposition  in  Con- 
gress to  the  food  control  measure  urged  by  President  Wil- 
son was  very  vigorous.  The  test  of  this  policy,  as  of  all 
other  things,  is  the  way  it  works  in  actual  practice.  If  it 
succeeds  as  a  war  measure,  the  people  are  likely  to  demand 
its  retention,  at  least  in  part,  in  time  of  peace. 

289.  Government  Ownership.  —  The  threatened  railroad 
strike  of  1916  and  the  conditions  of  the  War  raised  to  new 
prominence  the  idea  of  government  ownership  of  public  utili- 
ties, such  as  railroads,  telephones,  and  telegraphs.  So  essen- 
tial do  these  seem  to  be  to  the  industrial  and  social  life  of  the 
nation  that  if  private  ownership  and  operation  is  going  to 
permit  disputes  between  employer  and  employee  to  inter- 
rupt the  service  of  the  public,  government  ownership  and 
operation  must  be  assumed.  In  most  European  countries 
the  telephones  and  telegraphs  are  operated  in  connection  with 
the  post  office  as  a  natural  government  function,  and  on  the 
continent  most  of  the  railroads  are  also  government  owned. 

In  this  country,  however,  our  theories  of  democracy  have 
interfered  with  the  extension  of  the  government's  activities. 
Besides,  from  such  great  corporations  as  the  Bell  Telephone 
Company,  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company,  and  the 
bast  of  the  railroads  we  have  had  service  efficient  enough  so 
that  the  public  had  little  to  complain  about  except  the  rates 
charged. 

The  advocates  of  government  ownership  say  that  it  will 
give  the  public  better  service  at  lower  rates,  because  private 
profit  will  be  removed  or  else  the  income  may  be  used  to  meet 


464  Efforts  Toward  Betterment 

the  other  expenses  of  government.  The  tendency  to  con- 
centrate wealth  in  the  hands  of  a  few  will  be  checked,  for 
in  public  utilities  the  control  and  centralization  of  wealth  is 
most  easy.  Corruption  of  public  officials  by  private  money 
and  the  granting  of  special  favors  to  certain  patrons  would 
be  stopped,  and  the  bringing  of  all  employees  under  civil 
service  rules  would  encourage  efficient  administration. 

The  opponent  of  government  ownership  says  that  it  would 
add  an  enormous  burden  of  debt  unless  the  government 
should  be  so  outrageously  unfair  as  to  seize  the  property 
without  paying  for  it.  He  argues  that  private  ownership  has 
to  be  progressive  and  efficient,  while  under  government 
ownership  there  is  no  competition  and  the  public  must  put 
up  with  what  they  get. 

Furthermore  he  maintains  that  instead  of  improving  the 
quality  of  the  employees  it  would  make  it  worse,  for  it  would 
bring  hundreds  of  thousands  more  jobs  into  politics,  and  the 
pressure' would  be  such  that  no  civil  service  system  could  be 
upheld.  But  in  peace  and  in  war  these  utilities  must  be 
operated.  Now  that  the  war  is  over,  private  ownership 
has  another  chance.  Upon  its  success  or  failure  depends 
the  future  of  public  utilities. 

290.  Socialism.  —  One  growing  class  demands  much  more 
radical  changes  than  government  ownership  of  railroads, 
telegraphs,  and  telephones.  This  is  the  Socialist  group. 
The  Socialist  believes  that  our  industrial  system  is  unsound. 
Capital,  he  says,  is  the  result  of  the  combined  activities  of  the 
men  and  women  who  work.  Why  should  not  the  returns 
go  to  them  jointly,  instead  of  to  private  monopolists,  who 
allow  the  laborer  no  more  than  they  absolutely  must? 
Socialists  claim  that  private  ownership  of  capital,  private 
greed,  private  cruelty,  are  to  blame  for  the  injustice,  poverty, 
and  misery  of  the  world. 

Now  if  all  industry  were  operated  by  the  state  in  the  inter- 
est of  all  the  workers,  every  one  could  receive  what  he  earns 
instead  of  what  somebody  else  doles  out  to  him.    The  bitter- 


Socialism  465 

ness  and  waste  of  competition  would  be  removed,  and  each 
worker  could  be  assigned  to  the  work  for  which  he  is  best 
fitted.  In  short,  the  Socialist  wants  the  state  to  take  control 
of  everything  that  concerns  the  industrial  or  social  well- 
being  of  the  people. 

Numerous  objections  are  brought  up  by  the  opponents  of 
Socialism.  Would  not  the  management  of  such  an  enormous 
range  of  activities  require  more  than  human  intelligence  and 
power?  Could  any  system  remove  injustice,  poverty ,  and 
misery  unless  the  Golden  Rule  were  practiced  by  everybody  ? 
And  would  not  any  system  work  if  every  person  did  practice 
the  Golden  Rule?  As  long  as  there  are  idle,  incompetent, 
dishonest  people  can  you  hope  to  make  a  socialistic  state  a 
success  ? 

Are  you  sure  that  every  man  or  woman  is  willing  to  take  up 
the  work  in  which  he  can  best  serve  the  state?  "Anyhow, 
who  possesses  the  omniscience  that  can  determine  how  much 
each  ought  to  receive  for  his  labor  and  can  assign  each  to  his 
proper  task?  If  the  state  controls  and  settles  everything, 
will  there  be  much  inducement  for  the  individual  to  strive  for 
advancement  ? 

There  are  different  kinds  of  people  who  call  themselves 
Socialists.  By  all  means,  let  us  distinguish  between  the 
intelligent  Socialist  thinkers  who  are  striving  to  bring  about  a 
better  day  for  humanity,  and  the  discontented  people  who  call 
themselves  Socialists  but  who  do  not  understand  their  own 
creed.  The  real  Socialist  does  not  advocate  dividing  up 
all  the  money  equally  —  he  knows  that  it  would  not  stay 
equally  divided  five  minutes.  Neither  is  he  an  anarchist  — 
the  anarchist  wants  all  organized  government  removed,  but 
the  Socialist  wants  the  state  to  be  all-important. 

Socialistic  political  parties  exist  in  all  the  advanced  indus- 
trial nations.  Before  the  European  war  they  were  particu- 
larly numerous  in  Germany  and  France,  and  in  the  United 
States  they  have  elected  a  few  men  to  Congress  and  to  posi- 
tions in  state  legislatures  and  in  city  governments.     But 


466  Efforts  Toward  Betterment 

there  is  nothing  they  have  done  when  they  had  the  chance 
which  would  be  called  revolutionary.  Possibly  their  extreme 
theories  will  be  put  into  practice  only  in  the  very  remote 
future,  if  ever. 

But  the  fundamental  idea  of  Socialism,  greater  activity  by 
the  state  in  the  interest  of  all  its  citizens,  is  becoming  every 
year  more  common  —  more  necessary.  We  do  some  things 
now  as  a  matter  of  course  which  only  a  few  years  ago  were 
either  despised  or  violently  attacked  on  the  ground  that  they 
were  "  socialistic.' ' 

291.  The  Method  of  Progress.  —  Very  few  great  changes 
in  history  which  were  permanent  came  through  a  sudden 
outburst  or  violent  change.  Of  course  there  are  notable 
events  which  brought  a  situation  to  a  climax,  but  they  did  not 
occur  out  of  nothing.  Advancement  has  been  wrought  by 
a  steady  evolution.  Always  there  are  two  forces  at  work, 
progress  and  conservatism.  One  says,  Things  are  not  what 
they  ought  to  be.  Let's  make  them  better.  "  Nothing 
venture,  nothing  have."  The  other  says,  It's  better  to  be 
safe  than  to  be  sorry.  "  Let  well  enough  alone."  And  the 
two  forces  pull  this  way  and  that,  generally  causing  the 
movement  of  society  to  go  outside  of  the  path  where  either 
force  alone  would  take  it. 

On  the  side  of  the  conservative,  the  "  stand-patter,"  are 
usually  lined  up  the  people  who  have  "  arrived,"  the  old 
families,  the  business  power,  all  whose  activity  and  thought 
is  centered  on  the  welfare  of  their  "  vested  interests  "  and 
whose  love  for  old  times  and  old  ways  is  strong.  These  feel 
that  they  have  much  to  lose  by  a  change. 

With  the  progressive — the  radical,  his  opponents  would  call 
him  —  will  generally  be  found  the  people  who  are  struggling 
for  a  better  place  in  business  or  society,  the  pioneer  element, 
the  new  communities,  the  men  and  women  who  think  much 
of  the  needs  of  their  fellow  men,  those  who  care  more  for 
human  rights  than  for  the  rights  of  property,  as  well  as  those 
who  have  little  to  lose  by  any  change  that  could  take  place. 


The  Force  of  Public  Opinion  467 

Between  these  two  positions  —  modified,  perhaps,  in  some 
respects  —  every  citizen  must  choose.  To  those  who  can  be 
moved  by  nothing  but  appeals  to  selfish  interests,  it  is  useless 
to  say  anything.  But  to  those  whose  vision  is  broader, 
whose  hearts  are  touched  by  calls  for  service  and  are  inspired 
by  a  lofty  patriotism,  we  may  appeal.  Avoid  both  the 
extreme  of  following  custom  because  it  is  custom  and  it 
would  be  a  bother  to  make  a  change,  and  the  other  extreme 
of  following  the  crowd  or  yielding  to  a  wave  of  passion  as  does 
the  mob  when  some  one  yells,  "  Lynch  him." 

Keep  an  open  mind,  ready  to  take  hold  of  anything  good, 
no  matter  who  proposes  it.  Do  not  be  afraid  of  a  thing 
merely  because  it  is  new,  for  everything  must  be  tried  first 
by  somebody,  but  be  sure  that  the  principles  are  sound  on 
which  the  proposed  new  idea  is  based.  If  it  is  a  step  in  the 
right  direction,  take  it  unhesitatingly,  no  matter  if  it  hurts 
a  little  somewhere.  Progress  so  gained  is  likely  to  be  solid, 
far-reaching,  and  lasting. 

Draw  up  a  constitution  for  the  United  States  or  for  your  state 
or  a  charter  for  your  community,  making  it  as  nearly  perfect  as 
you  can.  If  this  seems  too  ambitious,  try  one  for  your  school  or  for 
some  other  organization  in  which  you  are  interested. 

292.  The  Force  of  Public  Opinion.  —  Back  of  every  re- 
form movement,  every  choice  of  a  public  official,  every. policy 
of  lawmaking  or  law-enforcement,  is  the  mighty  force  of 
public  opinion.  You  cannot  see  it,  but  it  is  none  the  less 
real.  No  matter  what  an  individual  thinks  about  any  one 
topic  or  how  widely  people  may  disagree  on  different  ques- 
tions, what  the  majority  think  about  any  theme  must  be 
accepted  as  public  opinion  as  far  as  that  topic  is  concerned. 
How  necessary  then  that  public  opinion  should  be  intelligent ! 

Do  you  know  of  any  laws  that  are  virtually  "  dead  letters  "  be- 
cause public  opinion  does  not  demand  their  enforcement  ? 

You  and  I  and  the  other  people  in  the  community  and  the 
nation  are  collectively  the  public.     Our  opinions  are  a  kind 


468 


Efforts  Toward  Betterment 


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of  composite  of  the  tendencies  which  were  born  in  us  and  the 
things  which  we  hear,  see,  and  read.  If  I  am  a  Republican 
just  because  my  father  was,  if  I  hear  the  views  of  no  one 
except  those  whom  my  daily  business  brings  in  touch  with  me, 

if  I  read  only  one  news- 
paper, and  a  partisan  one 
at  that,  it  is  quite  pos- 
sible that  my  opinion 
will  be  narrow  and  preju- 
diced. We  owe  our  fel- 
low men  a  better  service 
than  that,  and  have  a 
right  to  ask  something 
better  of  them. 

Every  church,  every 
club,  every  school,  every 
newspaper,  ought  to  give 
opportunity  for  a  fair 
understanding  not  only 
of  the  views  of  those  who 
are  responsible  for  its 
management,  but  of  the 
honest  opinions  of  those 
who  disagree.  Public 
school  buildings  in  par- 
ticular should  be  widely 
used  as  social  centers  for 
the  community.  Regu- 
lar meetings  should  be 
held  there  for  the  free 
discussion  of  public  ques- 
tions. How  far  many  of  these  organizations  fall  short  of 
doing  the  service  which  they  might  render !  And  how  less 
intelligent  public  opinion  must  be  on  this  account ! 

Why  is  it  that  newspapers  sometimes  do  not  tell  all  the  news 
Or  do  not  tell  it  correctly?     What  kind  of  newspapers  and  maga- 


VANDALS 

ON 

SIGHT 

IS  ORDER  M  STORM 
HEDMATOWN 


i  -3KN0WNKAD.20MOK 

fei;3llfllB)  KID  IN  RUMS 


...MiifSPOCE 
m    GfJIMANLMS 


Newspaper  Headlines. 

From  what  you  see  here,  how  would 
you  characterize  the  newspapers  which 
are  represented  ?  Would  you  be  justified 
in  forming  any  judgment  about  their 
trustworthiness  ? 


"Your  United  States"  469 

zines  does  your  family  read?    How  far  is  your  opinion  influenced 
by  what  you  read?  by  custom  or  habit? 

Yet,  right  or  wrong,  public  opinion  is  a  mighty  force. 
Few  Presidents,  even,  dare  to  defy  or  even  to  disregard  it. 
It  is  much  easier  for  an  official  to  "  keep  his  ear  to  the 
ground,"  and  follow  rather  than  lead.  How  hard  it  is  for  a 
good  public  officer  to  work  even  for  the  people's  welfare,  if 
they  do  not  understand  his  motives  or  his  policies !  But  a 
strong,  healthy  public  opinion  can  do  wonders  even  though 
its  agents  may  not  be  men  of  power. 

What  are  the  principal  means  by  which  public  opinion  can  be 
influenced  ?  How  much  can  the  schools  do  to  create  a  sound  pub- 
lic opinion?  Does  the  teaching  of  civics  in  the  schools  with  which 
you  are  acquainted  accomplish  all  that  it  should  ? 

293.  "  Your  United  States."  —  In  forming  this  public 
opinion  you  boys  and  girls,  young  men  and  women,  have  a 
part  even  now,  and  a  still  greater  part  will  be  yours  in  the 
years  to  come.  What  you  think  even  now  goes  out  into  your 
homes  and  into  the  community  at  large.  Even  now  you  can 
serve  your  community  in  numberless  ways  and  help  make  it 
better.  School  is  a  part  of  life,  not  a  little  world  by  itself, 
and  the  thoughts  and  habits  of  to-day  may  turn  the  whole 
course  of  the  future. 

A  noted  Englishman  who  visited  this  country  wrote  a  book 
after  making  his  journey,  which  he  called  "  Your  United 
States."  In  a  sense  somewhat  different  from  that  in  which  he 
used  the  words,  but  in  a  very  true  sense,  this  is  your  United 
States.  It  will  be  exactly  what  you  make  it,  for  in  a  few 
years  you  will  be  among  its  voters  and  only  a  little  later 
you  will  be  its  lawmakers  and  its  executives. 

That  your  ideals  of  public  service  may  be  high,  that  your 
views  on  public  questions  may  be  broad  and  thoughtful,  that 
your  courage  to  do  the  things  which  make  for  cleaner,  safer, 
happier  living  may  be  unyielding,  is  our  earnest  wish.  Thus 
only  can  "  Your  United  States  "  be  all  it  ought  to  be,  for  itself 


470  Efforts  Toward  Betterment 

and  for  all  humanity.  Those  are  the  principles  which  under- 
lie true  patriotism  in  war  and  in  peace.  No  nation  is  safe  for 
democracy  unless  its  citizens  are  inspired  by  such  ambitions. 
The  surest  way  to  make  the  world  safe  is  to  be  certain  that 
we  as  individuals  and  as  a  nation  think  nobly  and  act  cou- 
rageously. 

Does  patriotism  mean  more  or  less  than  it  did  a  hundred  years 
ago?  Are  our  standards  of  public  and  private  life  higher  or  lower? 
What  differences  will  the  American  citizen  of  the  year  2000  notice 
in  comparing  his  time  with  ours? 

QUESTIONS 

What  do  you  think  of  railroad  president  Baer's  idea  about  the 
employer's  place  in  the  plan  of  the  world  ?  How  ought  the  employer 
to  feel  toward  those  who  work  for  him?  What  motives  lead  to 
the  institution  of  profit-sharing  arrangements?  Why  do  labor 
unions  usually  object  to  them?  Define  welfare  work  and  give  ex- 
amples of  factories  where  it  is  undertaken  on  a  large  scale.  What 
do  you  think  of  it  ? 

What  are  cooperative  stores  ?  Why  do  we  have  so  few  of  them 
in  this  country?  Give  examples  of  cooperative  organization  now 
at  work  here. 

State  the  two  opposing  theories  about  the  relation  of  govern- 
ment to  industry.  Summarize  the  arguments  in  favor  of  each  — 
both  those  which  are  given  in  the  text  and  any  others  which  you 
can  think  of.  Should  the  government  treat  a  labor  union  on  the 
same  principles  that  it  follows  in  dealing  with  a  trust  ? 

Compare  the  extent  of  government  ownership  of  public  utilities 
in  Europe  and  America.  Why  is  it  so  limited  here?  Summarize 
the  leading  arguments  for  and  against  it.  Why  has  it  lately  been 
considered  more  seriously  than  before  in  this  country? 

What  is  Socialism?  What  are  the  chief  arguments  in  favor  of 
it  and  in  opposition  to  it?  What  seem  to  you  to  be  prospects  of 
Socialism  in  the  future  ?  Do  you  think  the  Great  War  will  help  or 
hinder  its  progress  ? 

By  what  method  does  steady  advancement  usually  come  ?  Con- 
trast the  two  classes  of  thinkers  on  public  themes.  What  posi- 
tion would  you  advise  the  average  honest  citizen  to  take  ? 

What  is  public  opinion?  What  influences  make  you  think  the 
way  you  do  about  public  questions?  What  can  you  do  now  to 
help  your  country?    What  is  your  responsibility  for  its  future? 


Special  Topics  471 


SPECIAL   TOPICS 

Henry  Ford :  His  Business  and  His  Workers. 

Welfare  Work  in  Great  Industrial  Institutions. 

Resolved,  that  the  national  government  should  be  given  power 
to  fix  a  maximum  price  for  all  food  products. 

Resolved,  that  railroads,  telephones,  and  telegraphs  should  be 
owned  and  operated  by  the  federal  government. 

Why  I  Am  (or  Am  Not)  a  Socialist. 

The  Newspaper :  Its  Evolution,  Production,  and  Power. 

The  Newspapers  of  Our  Community. 


APPENDIX  A 
CONSTITUTION 

OP   THE 

UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 
PREAMBLE 

We  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a  more 
perfect  union,  establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity,  pro- 
vide for  the  common  defence,  promote  the  general  welfare,  and 
secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do 
ordain  and  establish  this  Constitution  for  the  United  States  of 
America. 

ARTICLE   I.  —  LEGISLATIVE   DEPARTMENT 

Section  1.  —  Congress 

All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in  a  Con- 
gress of  the  United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate  and  a 
House  of  Representatives. 

Section  2.  —  House  op  Representatives 

1.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed  of  members 
chosen  every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the  several  States,  and 
the  electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite  for 
electors  of  the  most  numerous  branch  of  the  State  Legislature. 

2.  No  person  shall  be  a  Representative  who  shall  not  have  at- 
tained to  the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven  years  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be 
an  inhabitant  of  that  State  in  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

1 3.  Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  apportioned  among 
the  several  States  which  may  be  included  within  this  Union,  accord- 
ing to  their  respective  numbers,  which  shall  be  determined  by  add- 


1  Modified  by  Amendment  XIV,  Section  2,  and  Amendment  XVI. 

473 


474  Appendix 

ing  to  the  whole  number  of  free  persons,  including  those  bound  to 
service  for  a  term  of  years,  and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed,  three 
fifths  of  all  other  persons.  The  actual  enumeration  shall  be  made 
within  three  years  after  the  first  meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States,  and  within  every  subsequent  term  of  ten  years,  in 
suoh  manner  as  they  shall  by  law  direct.  The  number  of  Repre- 
sentatives shall  not  exceed  one  for  every  thirty  thousand,  but  each 
State  shall  have  at  least  one  representative;  and  until  such  enu- 
meration shall  be  made,  the  State  of  New  Hampshire  shall  be  en- 
titled to  choose  three,  Massachusetts  eight,  Rhode  Island  and  Provi- 
dence Plantations  one,  Connecticut  five,  New  York  six,  New  Jersey 
four,  Pennsylvania  eight,  Delaware  one,  Maryland  six,  Virginia 
ten,  North  Carolina  five,  South  Carolina  five,  and  Georgia  three. 

4.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  from  any  State, 
the  Executive  authority  thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill 
such  vacancies. 

5.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  their  Speaker  and 
other  officers ;  and  shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 


Section  3.  —  Senate 

11.  [The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of  two 
Senators  from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  Legislature  thereof,  for 
six  years;  and  each  Senator  shall  have  one  vote.] 

2.  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  consequence  of 
the  first  election,  they  shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into 
three  classes.  The  seats  of  the  Senators  of  the  first  class  shall  be 
vacated  at  the  expiration  of  the  second  year,  of  the  second  class 
at  the  expiration  of  the  fourth  year,  and  of  the  third  class  at  the 
expiration  of  the  sixth  year,  so  that  one  third  may  be  chosen  every 
second  year ;  *  [and  if  vacancies  happen  by  resignation,  or  other- 
wise, during  the  recess  of  the  Legislature  of  any  State,  the  Execu- 
tive thereof  may  make  temporary  appointments  until  the  next 
meeting  of  the  Legislature,  which  shall  then  fill  such  vacancies]. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to 
the  age  of  thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that 
State  for  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

4.  The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  shall  be  President  of 
the  Senate,  but  shall  have  no  vote,  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 


1  Paragraph  1  and  the  last  part  of  .paragraph  2,  in  Section  3,  have 
been  replaced  by  Amendment  XVII. 


Appendix  475 


5.  The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers,  and  also  a  Presi- 
dent pro  tempore,  in  the  absence  of  the  Vice-President,  or  when  he 
shall  exercise  the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States. 

6.  The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all  impeach- 
ments. When  sitting  for  that  purpose,  they  shall  be  on  oath  or 
affirmation.  When  the  President  of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the 
Chief  Justice  shall  preside :  and  no  person  shall  be  convicted  with- 
out the  concurrence  of  two  thirds  of  the  members  present. 

7.  Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall  not  extend  further 
than  to  removal  from  office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy 
any  office  of  honor,  trust,  or  profit  under  the  United  States :  but 
the  party  convicted  shall  nevertheless  be  liable  and  subject  to  in- 
dictment, trial,  judgment,  and  punishment,  according  to  law. 

Section  4.  —  Elections  and  Sessions 

1.  The  times,  places,  and  manner  of  holding  elections  for  Sena- 
tors and  Representatives  shall  be  prescribed  in  each  State  by  the 
Legislature  thereof;  but  the  Congress  may  at  any  time  by  law 
make  or  alter  such  regulations,  except  as  to  the  places  of  choosing 
Senators. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year,  and 
such  meeting  shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they 
shall  by  law  appoint  a  different  day. 

Section  5.  —  Government  and  Rules 

1.  Each  House  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  elections,  returns,  and 
qualifications  of  its  own  members,  and  a  majority  of  each  shall  con- 
stitute a  quorum  to  do  business ;  but  a  smaller  number  may  adjourn 
from  day  to  day,  and  may  be  authorized  to  compel  the  attendance 
of  absent  members,  in  such  manner,  and  under  such  penalties,  as 
each  House  may  provide. 

2.  Each  House  may  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceedings,  punish 
its  members  for  disorderly  behavior,  and,  with  the  concurrence  of 
two  thirds,  expel  a  member. 

3.  Each  House  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and  from 
time  to  time  publish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  in  their 
judgment  require  secrecy ;  and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  members 
of  either  House  on  any  question  shall,  at  the  desire  of  one  fifth  of 
those  present,  be  entered  on  the  journal. 

4.  Neither  House,  during  the  session  of  Congress,  shall,  without 
the  consent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to 
any  other  place  than  that  in  which  the  two  Houses  shall  be  sitting. 


476  Appendix 

Section  6.  —  Privileges  and  Restrictions 

1.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  receive  a  compen- 
sation for  their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law,  and  paid  out  of 
the  treasury  of  the  United  States.  They  shall  in  all  cases,  except 
treason,  felony,  and  breach  of  the  peace,  be  privileged  from  arrest 
during  their  attendance  at  the  session  of  their  respective  Houses, 
and  in  going  to  and  returning  from  the  same ;  and  for  any  speech 
or  debate  in  either  House  they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other 
place. 

2.  No  Senator  or  Representative  shall,  during  the  time  for  which 
he  was  elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority 
of  the  United  States,  which  shall  have  been  created,  or  the  emolu- 
ments whereof  shall  have  been  increased,  during  such  time;  and 
no  person  holding  any  office  under  the  United  States  shall  be  a 
member  of  either  House  during  his  continuance  in  office. 

Section  7.  —  Process  op  Law-making 

1.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the  House  of 
Representatives ;  but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur  with  amend- 
ments as  on  other  bills. 

2.  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives and  the  Senate  shall,  before  it  become  a  law,  be  presented  to 
the  President  of  the  United  States ;  if  he  approve  he  shall  sign  it, 
but  if  not  he  shall  return  it  with  his  objections  to  that  House  in 
which  it  shall  have  originated,  who  shall  enter  the  objections  at 
large  on  their  journal,  and  proceed  to  reconsider  it.  If  after  such 
reconsideration  two  thirds  of  that  House  shall  agree  to  pass  the 
bill,  it  shall  be  sent,  together  with  the  objections,  to  the  other 
House,  by  which  it  shall  likewise  be  reconsidered,  and,  if  approved 
by  two  thirds  of  that  House,  it  shall  become  a  law.  But  in  all  such 
cases  the  votes  of  both  Houses  shall  be  determined  by  yeas  and 
nays,  and  the  names  of  the  persons  voting  for  and  against  the  bill 
shall  be  entered  on  the  journal  of  each  House  respectively.  If  any 
bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the  President  within  ten  days  (Sundays 
excepted)  after  it  shall  have  been  presented  to  him,  the  same  shall 
be  a  law,  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless  the  Congress 
by  their  adjournment  prevent  its  return,  in  which  case  it  shall  not 
be  a  law. 

3.  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which  the  concurrence  of 
the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except 
on  a  question  of  adjournment)  shall  be  presented  to  the  President 
of  the  United  States ;   and,  before  the  same  shall  take  effect,  shall 


Appendix  477 

be  approved  by  him,  or,  being  disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  re- 
passed by  two  thirds  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives, 
according  to  the  rules  and  limitations  prescribed  in  the  case  of  a 
bill. 

Section  8.  —  Powers  Granted  to  Congress1 

The  Congress  shall  have  power,  — 

1.  To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts,  and  excises,  to  pay 
the  debts  and  provide  for  the  common  defence  and  general  welfare 
of  the  United  States ;  but  all  duties,  imposts,  and  excises  shall  be 
uniform  throughout  the  United  States ; 

2.  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States ; 

3.  To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations,  and  among  the 
several  States,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes ; 

4.  To  establish  a  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uniform 
laws  on  the  subject  of  bankruptcies  throughout  the  United  States ; 

5.  To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of  foreign 
coin,  and  fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures ; 

6.  To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  securi- 
ties and  current  coin  of  the  United  States ; 

7.  To  establish  post-offices  and  post-roads ; 

8.  To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts,  by  secur- 
ing for  limited  times  to  authors  and  inventors  the  exclusive  right 
to  their  respective  writings  and  discoveries ; 

9.  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court ; 

10.  To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  committed  on  the 
high  seas,  and  offences  against  the  law  of  nations ; 

11.  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  and 
make  rules  concerning  captures  on  land  and  water ; 

12.  To  raise  and  support  armies,  but  no  appropriation  of  money 
to  that  use  shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two  years ; 

13.  To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy ; 

14.  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  land 
and  naval  forces ; 

15.  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws  of 
the  Union,  suppress  insurrections,  and  repel  invasions ; 

16.  To   provide  for  organizing,   arming,   and   disciplining  the 


1  Additional  powers  of  Congress  are  mentioned  in  Art.  I,  Sect.  2, 
par.  3 ;  Sect.  4,  par.  1 ;  Sect.  6,  par.  1 ;  Art.  II,  Sect.  1,  pars.  4,  6 ; 
Art.  Ill,  Sect.  2,  pars.  2, 3 ;  Sect.  3,  par.  2 ;  Art.  IV,  Sect.  1 ;  Sect.  3, 
pars.  1,  2;  Art.  V;  Amendment  XIII,  Sect.  2;  Amendment  XI Vt 
Sects.  2,  3,  5;  Amendment XV,  Sect.  2;  Amendment  XVI. 


478  Appendix 

militia,  and  for  governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be  employed 
in  the  service  of  the  United  States,  reserving  to  the  States  respec- 
tively, the  appointment  of  the  officers,  and  the  authority  of  train- 
ing the  militia  according  to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  Congress ; 

17.  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation,  in  all  cases  whatsoever,  over 
such  district  (not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of 
particular  States,  and  the  acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the  seat 
of  the  government  of  the  United  States;  and  to  exercise  like  au- 
thority over  all  places  purchased  by  the  consent  of  the  Legislature 
of  the  State  in  which  the  same  shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts, 
magazines,  arsenals,  dock-yards,  and  other  needful  buildings ;  — 
and 

18.  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for 
carrying  into  execution  the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers 
vested  by  this  Constitution  in  the  government  of  the  United  States, 
or  in  any  department  or  officer  thereof. 

Section  9.  —  Powers  Denied  to  Congress  l 

1.  The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons  as  any  of  the 
States  now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit,  shall  not  be  pro- 
hibited by  the  Congress  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hun- 
dred and  eight,  but  a  tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed  on  such  impor- 
tation, not  exceeding  ten  dollars  for  each  person. 

2.  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  sus- 
pended, unless  when  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion  the  public 
safety  may  require  it. 

3.  No  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  post  facto  law  shall  be  passed. 

2  4.  No  capitation  or  other  direct  tax  shall  be  iaid,  unless  in  pro- 
portion to  the  census  or  enumeration  herein  Lsfore  directed  to  be 
taken. 

5.  No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported  from  any 
State. 

6.  No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regulation  of  commerce 
or  revenue  to  the  ports  of  one  State  over  those  of  another ;  nor  shall 
vessels  bound  to,  or  from,  one  State,  be  obhged  to  enter,  clear,  or 
pay  duties  in  another. 

7.  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury,  but  in  conse- 
quence of  appropriations  made  by  law;   and  a  regular  statement 


1  Amendments  I  to  X  are  also,  directly  or  indirectly,  limitations 
on  the  powers  of  Congress. 

1  Modified  by  Amendment  XVI. 


Appendix  479 

and  account  of  the  receipts  and  expenditures  of  all  public  money 
shall  be  published  from  time  to  time. 

8.  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States; 
and  no  person  holding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them  shall, 
without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  accept  of  any  present,  emolu- 
ment, office,  or  title,  of  any  kind  whatever,  from  any  king,  prince, 
or  foreign  state. 

Section  10.  —  Powers  Denied  to  the  States  j 

1.  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance,  or  confedera- 
tion ;  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal ;  coin  money ;  emit  bills 
of  credit ;  make  anything  but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  tender  in  pay- 
ment of  debts ;  pass  any  bill  of  attainder,  ex  post  facto  law,  or  law 
impairing  the  obligation  of  contracts,  or  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

2.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any 
imposts  or  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except  what  may  be  abso- 
lutely necessary  for  executing  its  inspection  laws;  and  the  net 
produce  of  all  duties  and  imposts,  laid  by  any  State  on  imports  or 
exports,  shall  be  for  the  use  of  the  treasury  of  the  United  States ; 
and  all  such  laws  shall  be  subject  to  the  revision  and  control  of  the 
Congress. 

3.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  Congress,  lay  any 
duty  of  tonnage,  keep  troops  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace,  enter 
into  any  agreement  or  compact  with  another  State,  or  with  a  for- 
eign power,  or  engage  in  war,  unless  actually  invaded,  or  in  such 
imminent  danger  as  will  not  admit  of  delay. 


ARTICLE   II.  —  EXECUTIVE   DEPARTMENT 
Section  1.  —  The  President  :    Election  and  Qualifications 

1.  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a  President  of  the 
United  States  of  America.  He  shall  hold  his  office  during  the  term 
of  four  years,  and,  together  with  the  Vice-President,  chosen  for  the 
same  term,  be  elected  as  follows :  — 

2.  Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  Legislature 
thereof  may,  direct,  a  number  of  Electors  equal  to  the  whole  num- 
ber of  Senators  and  Representatives  to  which  the  State  may  be 
entitled  in  the  Congress:  but  no  Senator  or  Representative,  or 
person  holding  an  office  of  trust  or  profit  under  the  United  States, 
shall  be  appointed  an  Elector. 


1  Supplemented  by  Amendments  XIV  and  XV. 


480  Appendix 

1 3.  [The  Electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote 
by  ballot  for  two  persons,  of  whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be  an  in- 
habitant of  the  same  State  with  themselves.  And  they  shall  make 
a  list  of  all  the  persons  voted  for,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for 
each ;  which  list  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to 
the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the 
President  of  the  Senate.  The  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the 
presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the 
certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted.  The  person  hav- 
ing the  greatest  number  of  votes  shall  be  the  President,  if  such 
number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  Electors  appointed ; 
and  if  there  be  more  than  one  who  have  such  majority,  and  have  an 
equal  number  of  votes,  then  the  House  of  Representatives  shall 
immediately  choose  by  ballot  one  of  them  for  President ;  and  if  no 
person  have  a  majority,  then  from  the  five  highest  on  the  list  the 
said  House  shall  in  like  manner  choose  the  President.  But  in 
choosing  the  President,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the 
representation  from  each  State  having  one  vote ;  a  quorum  for  this 
purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two  thirds  of 
the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a 
choice.  In  every  case,  after  the  choice  of  the  President,  the  per- 
son having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  of  the  Electors  shall  be 
the  Vice-President.  But  if  there  should  remain  two  or  more  who 
have  equal  votes,  the  Senate  shall  choose  from  them  by  ballot  the 
Vice-President.] 

4.  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the  Electors, 
and  the  day  on  which  they  shall  give  their  voter ;  which  day  shall 
be  the  same  throughout  the  United  States. 

5.  No  person  except  a  natural-born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall 
be  eligible  to  the  office  of  President ;  neither  shall  any  person  be 
eligible  to  that  office  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of 
thirty-five  years,  and  been  fourteen  years  a  resident  within  the 
United  States. 

6.  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office,  or  of  his 
death,  resignation,  or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties 
of  the  said  office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on  the  Vice-President,  and 
the  Congress  may  by  law  provide  for  the  case  of  removal,  death, 
resignation,  or  inability,  both  of  the  President  and  Vice-President, 
declaring  what  officer  shall  then  act  as  President,  and  such  officer 
shall  aot  accordingly,  until  the  disability  be  removed,  or  a  Presi- 
dent shall  be  elected. 


*  Replaced  by  Amendment  XII. 


Appendix  481 

7.  The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  services  a 
compensation,  which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished 
during  the  period  for  which  he  shall  have  been  elected,  and  he  shall 
not  receive  within  that  period  any  other  emolument  from  the 
United  States,  or  any  of  them. 

8.  Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office,  he  shall  take 
the  following  oath  or  affirmation:  —  "I  do  solemnly  swear  (or 
affirm)  that  I  will  faithfully  execute  the  office  of  President  of  the 
United  States,  and  will,  to  the  best  of  my  ability,  preserve,  protect, 
and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States." 

Section  2.  —  Powers  of  the  President 

1.  The  President  shall  be  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and 
navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the  several  States, 
when  called  into  the  actual  service  of  the  United  States ;  he  may 
require  the  opinion,  in  writing,  of  the  principal  officer  in  each  of 
the  executive  departments,  upon  any  subject  relating  to  the  duties 
of  their  respective  offices,  and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves 
and  pardons  for  offences  against  the  United  States,  except  in  cases 
of  impeachment. 

2.  He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate,  to  make  treaties,  provided  two  thirds  of  the  Senators  present 
concur;  and  he  shall  nominate,  and,  by  and  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  Senate,  shall  appoint  ambassadors,  other  public 
ministers,  and  consuls,  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  all  other 
officers  of  the  United  States,  whose  appointments  are  not  herein 
otherwise  provided  for,  and  which  shall  be  established  by  law ;  but 
the  Congress  may  by  law  vest  the  appointment  of  such  inferior 
officers,  as  they  think  proper,  in  the  President  alone,  in  the  courts 
of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of  departments. 

3.  The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all  vacancies  that  may 
happen  during  the  recess  of  the  Senate,  by  granting  commissions 
which  shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their  next  session. 

Section  3.  —  Duties  op  the  President 

He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the  Congress  information  of 
the  state  of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to  their  consideration  such 
measures  as  he  shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient;  he  may,  on 
extraordinary  occasions,  convene  both  Houses,  or  either  of  them, 
and  in  case  of  disagreement  between  them,  with  respect  to  the 
time  of  adjournment,  he  may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as  he 
shall  think  proper ;  he  shall  receive  ambassadors  and  other  public 


482  Appendix 

ministers ;  he  shall  take  care  that  the  laws  be  faithfully  executed, 
and  shall  commission  all  the  officers  of  the  United  States. 

Section  4.  —  Removal  op  Officials 

The  President,  Vice-President,  and  all  civil  officers  of  the  United 
States,  shall  be  removed  from  office  on  impeachment  for,  and  con- 
viction of,  treason,  bribery,  or  other  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors. 


ARTICLE   III.  — JUDICIAL  DEPARTMENT 
Section  1.  —  Courts  and  Judges 

The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  be  vested  in  one 
Supreme  Court,  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  the  Congress  may 
from  time  to  time  ordain  and  establish.  The  judges,  both  of  the 
Supreme  and  inferior  courts,  shall  hold  their  offices  during  good 
behavior,  and  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  their  services  a  com- 
pensation, which  shall  not  be  diminished  during  their  continuance 
in  office. 

Section  2.  —  Jurisdiction  and  Methods 

1.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases,  in  law  and  equity, 
arising  under  this  Constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and 
treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  their  authority;  to 
all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers,  and  consuls ; 
to  all  cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime  jurisdiction ;  to  controversies 
to  which  the  United  States  shall  be  a  party;  to  controversies 
between  two  or  more  States,  between  a  State  and  citizens  of  an- 
other State,1  between  citizens  of  different  States,  between  citizens 
of  the  same  State  claiming  lands  under  grants  of  different  States, 
and  between  a  State,  or  the  citizens  thereof,  and  foreign  states, 
citizens,  or  subjects. 

2.  In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers,  and 
consuls,  and  those  in  which  a  State  shall  be  party,  the  Supreme 
Court  shall  have  original  jurisdiction.  In  all  the  other  cases  before 
mentioned,  the  Supreme  Court  shall  have  appellate  jurisdiction, 
both  as  to  law  and  fact,  with  such  exceptions,  and  under  such  regu- 
lations, as  the  Congress  shall  make. 

3.  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall 
be  by  jury ;  and  such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said 
crimes  shall  have  been  committed ;  but  when  not  committed  within 


1  Modified  by  Amendment  XI. 


Appendix  483 

any  State,  the  trial  shall  be  at  such  place  or  places  as  the  Congress 
may  by  law  have  directed. 

Section  3.  —  Treason 

1.  Treason  against  the  United  States  shall  consist  only  in  levying 
war  against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid 
and  comfort.  No  person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason  unless  .on  the 
testimony  of  two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on  confession 
in  open  court. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punishment  of 
treason,  but  no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood, 
or  forfeiture,  except  during  the  life  of  the  person  attainted. 


ARTICLE   IV.  — STATE   RELATIONS 
Section  1.  —  Public  Acts 

Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  State  to  the  public 
acts,  records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  every  other  State.  And 
the  Congress  may  by  general  laws  prescribe  the  manner  in  which 
such  acts,  records,  and  proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the  effect 
thereof. 

Section  2.  —  Rights  and  Restrictions  op  Individuals 

1.  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all  privileges  and 
immunities  of  citizens  in  the  several  States. 

2.  A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony,  or  other 
crime,  who  shall  flee  from  justice,  and  be  found  in  another  State, 
shall,  on  demand  of  the  executive  authority  of  the  State  from  which 
he  fled,  be  delivered  up,  to  be  removed  to  the  State  having  juris- 
diction of  the  crime. 

3.  No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State,  under  the  laws 
thereof,  escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  consequence  of  any  law  or 
regulation  therein,  be  discharged  from  such  service  or  labor,  but 
shall  be  delivered  up  on  claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  service  or 
labor  may  be  due. 

Section  3.  —  New  States  and  National  Possessions 

1.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress  into  this  Union ; 
but  no  New  State  shall  be  formed  or  erected  within  the  jurisdiction 
of  any  other  State ;  nor  any  State  be  formed  by  the  junction  of 
two  or  more  States,  or  parts  of  States,  without  the  consent  of  the 
Legislatures  of  the  States  concerned,  as  well  as  of  the  Congress. 


484  Appendix 

'  2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of  and  make  all 
needful  rules  and  regulations  respecting  the  territory  or  other 
property  belonging  to  the  United  States ;  and  nothing  in  this  Con- 
stitution shall  be  so  construed  as  to  prejudice  any  claims  of  the 
United  States,  or  of  any  particular  State. 

Section  4.  —  Protection  of  States 

The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  State  in  this  Union 
a  republican  form  of  government,  and  shall  protect  each  of  them 
against  invasion ;  and  on  application  of  the  Legislature,  or  of  the 
Executive  (when  the  Legislature  can  not  be  convened),  against 
domestic  violence. 

ARTICLE   V.  — AMENDMENT 

The  Congress,  whenever  two  thirds  of  both  houses  shall  deem  it 
necessary,  shall  propose  amendments  to  this  Constitution,  or,  on 
the  application  of  the  Legislatures  of  two  thirds  of  the  several 
States,  shall  call  a  convention  for  proposing  amendments,  which, 
in  either  case,  shall  be  valid  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  as  part  of 
this  Constitution,  when  ratified  by  the  Legislatures  of  three  fourths 
of  the  several  States,  or  by  conventions  in  three  fourths  thereof,  as 
the  one  or  the  other  mode  of  ratification  may  be  proposed  by  the 
Congress ;  provided  that  no  amendment  which  may  be  made  prior 
to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight  shall  in  any  man- 
ner affect  the  first  and  fourth  clauses  in  the  ninth  section  of  the  first 
article ;  and  that  no  State,  without  its  consent,  shall  be  deprived  of 
its  equal  suffrage  in  the  Senate. 

ARTICLE    VI.  — AUTHORITY    OF    THE    CONSTITUTION 

1.  All  debts  contracted  and  engagements  entered  into,  before 
the  adoption  of  this  Constitution  shall  be  as  valid  against  the  United 
States  under  this  Constitution  as  under  the  Confederation. 

2.  This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States  which 
shall  be  made  in  pursuance  thereof,  and  all  treaties  made,  or  which 
shall  be  made,  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  the 
supreme  law  of  the  land;  and  the  judges  in  every  State  shall  be 
bound  thereby,  anything  in  the  constitution  or  laws  of  any  State  to 
the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

$.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  before  mentioned,  and  the 
members  of  the  several  State  Legislatures,  and  all  executive  and 
judicial  officers,  both  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  several  States, 
shall  be  bound  by  oath  or  affirmation  to  support  this  Constitution ; 


Appendix  485 

but  no  religious  test  shall  ever  be  required  as  a  qualification  to  any 
office  or  public  trust  under  the  United  States. 


ARTICLE   VII.  —  RATIFICATION 

The  ratification  of  the  conventions  of  nine  States  shall  be  suffi- 
cient for  the  establishment  of  this  Constitution  between  the  States 
so  ratifying  the  same. 

Done  in  Convention,  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  States 
present,  the  seventeenth  day  of  September,  in  the  year  of  our 
Lord  one  thousand  seven  hundred  and  eighty-seven,  and  of 
the  Independence  of  the  United  States  of  America  the  twelfth. 
In  Witness  whereof  we  have  hereunto  subscribed  our  names. 

G°:  Washington, 
Presidt.  and  Deputy  from  Virginia, 
[and  thirty-eight  other  delegates.] 


ARTICLES 

IN  ADDITION  TO,  AND  AMENDMENT  OF, 

THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF 

AMERICA 

ARTICLE   L  — PERSONAL  FREEDOM  » 

Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of  re- 
ligion, or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof;  or  abridging  the 
freedom  of  speech,  or  of  the  press,  or  the  right  of  the  people  peace- 
ably to  assemble,  and  to  petition  the  government  for  a  redress  of 
grievances. 

ARTICLE  II.  — KEEPING  AND  BEARING  ARMS1 

A  well  regulated  militia  being  necessary  to  the  security  of  a  free 
state,  the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  arms  shall  not  be 
infringed. 

ARTICLE   III.  —  QUARTERING   TROOPS1 

No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quartered  in  any  house, 
without  the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in  a 
manner  to  be  prescribed  by  law. 


486  Appendix 


ARTICLE   IV.  — SECURITY   OF   THE   HOME » 

The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses, 
papers,  and  effects,  against  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures,  shall 
not  be  violated,  and  no  warrants  shall  issue  but  upon  probable  cause, 
supported  by  oath  or  affirmation,  and  particularly  describing  the 
place  to  be  searched,  and  the  persons  or  things  to  be  seized. 

ARTICLE  V.— SECURITY  AGAINST  THE  GOVERNMENT  i 

No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital,  or  otherwise  in- 
famous crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of  a  grand 
jury,  except  in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the 
militia,  when  in  actual  service  in  time  of  war  or  public  danger ;  nor 
shall  any  person  be  subject  for  the  same  offence  to  be  twice  put  in 
jeopardy  of  life  or  limb;  nor  shall  be  compelled  in  any  criminal 
case  to  be  a  witness  against  himself,  nor  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty, 
or  property,  without  due  process  of  law ;  nor  shall  private  property 
be  taken  for  public  use  without  just  compensation. 

ARTICLE  VI.  — RIGHTS  OF  PERSONS  ACCUSED  OF 
CRIME  » 

In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right  to 
a  speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  State  and  dis- 
trict wherein  the  crime  shall  have  been  committed,  which  district 
shall  have  been  previously  ascertained  by  law,  and  to  be  informed 
of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  accusation ;  to  be  confronted  with 
the  witnesses  against  him ;  to  have  compulsory  process  for  obtain- 
ing witnesses  in  his  favor,  and  to  have  the  assistance  of  counsel  for 
his  defence. 

ARTICLE  VII.— JURY  TRIAL  IN  CIVIL  CASES " 

In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  controversy  shall 
exceed  twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved, 
and  no  fact  tried  by  a  jury  shall  be  otherwise  re-examined  in  any 
court  of  the  United  States,  than  according  to  the  rules  of  the  com- 
mon law. 

ARTICLE  VIII. —  BAIL  AND  PUNISHMENTS1 

Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed, 
nor  cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 


Appendix  487 

ARTICLE    IX.— UNMENTIONED   RIGHTS « 

The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution  of  certain  rights  shall  not 
be  construed  to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained  by  the  people. 

ARTICLE   X.  — POWERS   RESERVED   TO   THE   STATES1 

The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the  Constitu- 
tion, nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the  States 
respectively,  or  to  the  people. 

ARTICLE   XL  — SUITS  AGAINST   STATES  2 

The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  construed 
to  extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  commenced  or  prosecuted 
against  one  of  the  United  States  by  citizens  of  another  State,  or  by 
citizens  or  subjects  of  any  foreign  state. 

ARTICLE  XII.  —  ELECTION  OP  PRESIDENT  AND  VICE- 
PRESIDENT  3 

The  Electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by 
ballot  for  President  and  Vice-President,  one  of  whom,  at  least, 
shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves ;  they 
shall  name  in  their  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  President,  and  in 
distinct  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  Vice-President;  and  they 
shall  make  distinct  lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  President,  and  of 
all  persons  voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  of  the  number  of  votes 
for  each,  which  lists  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed 
to  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the 
President  of  the  Senate ;  —  the  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the 
presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the 
certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted ;  —  the  person 
having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  for  President  shall  be  the 
President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of 
Electors  appointed;  and  if  no  person  have  such  majority,  then 
from  the  persons  having  the  highest  numbers  not  exceeding  three 
on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  President,  the  House  of  Represen- 


1  Amendments  I  to  X  were  proposed  by  Congress  in  1789.  After 
ratification  by  the  states  they  were  proclaimed  by  the  Secretary  of 
State  to  be  in  force,  1791. 

*  Proposed,  1794,  proclaimed  in  force,  1798. 

*  Proposed,  1803,  proclaimed  in  force,  1804. 


488  Appendix 

tatives  shall  choose  immediately,  by  ballot,  the  President.  But  in 
choosing  the  President,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  repre- 
sentation from  each  State  having  one  vote ;  a  quorum  for  this  pur- 
pose shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two  thirds  of  the 
States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice. 
And  if  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  not  choose  a  President, 
whenever  the  right  of  choice  shall  devolve  upon  them,  before  the 
fourth  day  of  March  next  following,  then  the  Vice-President  shall 
act  as  President,  as  in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other  constitutional 
disability  of  the  President.  The  person  having  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  votes  as  Vice-President  shall  be  the  Vice-President,  if  such 
number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  Electors  appointed, 
and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then  from  the  two  highest  num- 
bers on  the  list  the  Senate  shall  choose  the  Vice-President;  a 
quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist  of  two  thirds  of  the  whole 
number  of  Senators,  and  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  shall  be 
necessary  to  a  choice.  But  no  person  constitutionally  ineligible  to 
the  office  of  President  shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  Vice-President  of 
the  United  States. 

ARTICLE   XIII.  —  SLAVERY  i 
Section  1.  —  Prohibition 

Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude,  except  as  a  punish- 
ment for  crime  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  convicted, 
shall  exist  within  the  United  States,  or  any  place  subject  to  their 
jurisdiction. 

Section  2.  —  Enforcement 

Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate 
legislation. 

ARTICLE    XIV.  — CIVIL    AND    POLITICAL    RIGHTS    OP 
CITIZENS 2 

Section  1.  —  Citizens  and  Their  Rights 

All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and  subject 
to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  States  and  of 
the  State  wherein  they  reside.  No  State  shall  make  or  enforce 
any  law  which  shall  abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens 
of  the  United  States;   nor  shall  any  State  deprive  any  person  of 


1  Proposed  and  proclaimed  in  force,  1865. 
'Proposed,  1866,  proclaimed  in  force,  1868. 


•     Appendix  489 

life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of  law ;  nor  deny  to 
any  person  within  its  jurisdiction  the  equal  protection  of  the  laws. 

Section  2.  —  Apportionment  op  Representatives 
Representatives  shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several  States 
according  to  their  respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole  num- 
ber of  persons  in  each  State,  excluding  Indians  not  taxed.  But 
when  the  right  to  vote  at  any  election  for  the  choice  of  Electors 
for  President  and  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  Represen- 
tatives in  Congress,  the  executive  and  judicial  officers  of  a  State, 
or  the  members  of  the  Legislature  thereof,  is  denied  to  any  of  the 
male  inhabitants  of  such  State,  being  twenty-one  years  of  age  and 
citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  way  abridged,  except  for 
participation  in  rebellion  or  other  crime,  the  basis  of  representation 
therein  shall  be  reduced  in  the  proportion  which  the  number  of 
such  male  citizens  shall  bear  to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizens 
twenty-one  years  of  age  in  such  State. 

Section  3.  —  Loss  op  Political  Privileges 

No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  or  Representative  in  Congress,  or 
Elector  of  President  and  Vice-President,  or  hold  any  office,  civil  or 
military,  under  the  United  States,  or  under  any  State,  who,  having 
previously  taken  an  oath,  as  a  member  of  Congress,  or  as  an  officer 
of  the  United  States,  or  as  a  member  of  any  State  Legislature,  or 
as  an  executive  or  judicial  officer  of  any  State,  to  support  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States,  shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection 
or  rebellion  against  the  same,  or  given  aid  or  comfort  to  the  enemies 
thereof.  But  Congress  may,  by  a  vote  of  two  thirds  of  each  House, 
remove  such  disability. 

Section  4.  —  Public  Debt 

The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United  States,  authorized 
by  law,  including  debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pensions  and 
bounties  for  services  in  suppressing  insurrection  or  rebellion,  shall 
not  be  questioned.  But  neither  the  United  States,  nor  any  State 
shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt  or  obligation  incurred  in  aid  of  insur- 
rection or  rebellion  against  the  United  States,  or  any  claim  for  the 
loss  or  emancipation  of  any  slave ;  but  all  such  debts,  obligations, 
and  claims  shall  be  held  illegal  and  void. 

Section  5.  —  Enforcement 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by  appropriate  legis- 
lation, the  provisions  of  this  article. 


490  Appendix 

ARTICLE  XV.  — RIGHT  OF  SUFFRAGE* 

Section  1.  —  Negro  Suffrage 

The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be 
denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States,  or  by  any  State,  on  account 
of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 

Section  2.  —  Enforcement 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appro- 
priate legislation. 

ARTICLE   XVI  —  INCOME   TAXES  * 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  collect  taxes  on  in- 
comes, from  whatever  source  derived,  without  apportionment 
among  the  several  States,  and  without  regard  to  any  census  or 
enumeration. 

ARTICLE  XVII  — ELECTION   OF   SENATORS  3 

1.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of  two 
Senators  from  each  State,  elected  by  the  people  thereof,  for  six 
years ;  and  each  Senator  shall  have  one  vote.  The  electors  in  each 
State  shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite  for  electors  of  the  most 
numerous  branch  of  the  State  legislatures. 

2.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  of  any  State  in 
the  Senate,  the  executive  authority  of  such  State  shall  issue  writs 
of  election  to  fill  such  vacancies :  Provided,  that  the  Legislature  of 
any  State  may  empower  the  executive  thereof  to  make  temporary 
appointment  until  the  people  fill  the  vacancies  by  election  as  the 
Legislature  may  direct. 

3.  This  amendment  shall  not  be  so  construed  as  to  affect  the 
election  or  term?  of  any  Senator  chosen  before  it  becomes  valid  as 
part  of  the  Constitution. 

ARTICLE   XVIII  —  INTOXICATING   LIQUORS* 
Section  1.  —  Prohibition 
After  one  year  from  the  ratification  of  this  article  the  manu- 
facture, sale,  or  transportation  of  intoxicating  liquors  within,  the 

1  Proposed,  1869,  proclaimed  in  force,  1870. 

*  Proposed,  1909,  proclaimed  in  force,  1913. 

*  Proposed,  1912,  proclaimed  in  force,  1913. 
4  Proposed,  1917,  proclaimed  in  foroe,  1919. 


Appendix  491 

importation  thereof  into,  or  the  exportation  thereof  from  the 
United  States  and  all  territory  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof, 
for  beverage  purposes,  is  hereby  prohibited. 

Section  2.  —  Enforcement 

The  Congress  and  the  several  States  shall  have  concurrent  power 
to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate  legislation. 

Section  3.  —  Time  op  Ratification 

This  article  shall  be  inoperative  unless  it  shall  have  been  ratified 
as  an  amendment  to  the  Constitution  by  the  Legislatures  of  the 
several  States  as  provided  in  the  Constitution  within  seven  years 
from  the  date  of  the  submission  hereof  to  the  States  by  the  Congress. 

ARTICLE   XIX  — EQUAL   SUFFRAGE  » 

Section  1.  —  Voting  Rights 

The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be 
denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by  any  State  on  account 
of  sex. 

Section  2.  —  Enforcement 

Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate 
legislation. 

1  Proposed,  1919,  proclaimed  in  force,  1920 


APPENDIX  B 


STATISTICS  OF  THE  STATES 

State 

Became 

Member 

OF  THE 

Union 

Area  in 
Square 
Miles 

Population 
in  1920 

Electoral 

Vote 
1912-1920 

Alabama    . 

1819 

51,998 

2,348,174 

12 

Arizona 

1912 

113,956 

333,903 

3 

Arkansas    . 

1836 

53,335 

1,752,204 

9 

California  . 

1850 

158,297 

3,426,861 

13 

Colorado    . 

1876 

103,948 

939,629 

6 

Connecticut 

1788 

4,965 

1,380,631 

7 

Delaware    . 

1787 

2,370 

223,003 

3 

Florida  .     . 

1845 

58,666 

968,470 

6 

Georgia 

1788 

59,265 

2,895,832 

14 

Idaho     .     . 

1890 

83,888 

431,866 

4 

Illinois  .     . 

1818 

56,665 

6,485,280 

29 

Indiana 

1816 

36,354 

2,930,390 

15 

Iowa      .     . 

1846 

56,147 

2,404,021 

13 

Kansas  .     . 

1861 

82,158 

1,769,257 

10 

Kentucky  . 

1792 

40,598 

2,416,630 

13 

Louisiana   . 

1812 

48,506 

1,798,509 

10 

Maine    .     . 

1820 

33,040 

768,014 

6 

Maryland  . 

1788 

12,327 

1,449,661 

8    , 

Massachusetts 

1788 

8,266 

3,852,356 

18 

Michigan    . 

1837 

57,980 

3,668,412 

15 

Minnesota .     . 

1858 

84,682 

2,387,125 

12 

Mississippi 

1817 

46,865 

1,790,618 

10 

Missouri 

1821 

69,420 

3,404,055 

18 

Montana    . 

1889 

146,997 

548,889 

4 

Nebraska    . 

1867 

77,520 

1,296,372 

8 

Nevada 

1864 

110,690 

77,407 

3 

New  Hampshi 

re 

1788 

9,341 

443,083 

4 

New  Jersey 

1787 

8,224 

3,155,900 

14 

New  Mexico 

1912 

122,634 

360,350 

3 

New  York  . 

1788 

49,204 

10,384,829 

45 

North  Carolin 

a 

1789 

52,426 

2,559,123 

12 

North  Dakota 

1889 

70,837 

645,680 

5 

Ohio       .     . 

1803 

41,040 

5,759,394 

24 

Oklahoma  . 

1907 

70,057 

2,028.283 

10 

Oregon  .     . 

1859 

96,699 

783,389 

5 

Pennsylvania 

1787 

45,126 

8,720,017 

38 

Rhode  Island 

1790 

1,248 

604,397 

5 

South  Carolinj 

i 

1788 

30,989 

1,683,724 

9 

South  Dakota 

1889 

77,615 

636,547 

5 

Tennessee  . 

1796 

42,022 

2,337,885 

12 

492 


Appendix 


493 


STATISTICS  OF  THE  STATES 

—  (continued) 

State 

Became 
Member 

OP  THE 

Union 

Area  in 

S QUA HE 

Miles 

Population 
in  1920 

Electoral 

Vote 
1912-1920 

Texas               . 

1845 
1896 
1791 

1788 
1889 
1863 
1848 
1890 

265,896 
84,990 
9,564 
42,627 
69,127 
24,170 
56,066 
97,914 

4,663,228 

449,396 

352,428 

2,309,187 

1,356,621 

1,463,701 

2,632,067 

194,402 

-     20 

Utah      .     .     . 

4 

Vermont     .     . 
Virginia      .     . 
Washington    . 
West  Virginia 
Wisconsin  .     . 
Wyoming   .     . 

4 
12 

7 

8 

13 

3 

Total  of  the  Stat< 

3S 

3,026,719 

105,271,200 

531 

OTHER   POSSESSIONS   OF   THE 

UNITED 

STATES 

Region 

Date 

op 
Acqui- 
sition 

Present  Govern- 
ment 

Area  in 
Square 
Miles 

Population 
in  1920 

Alaska      .     .     . 

1867 

Territory 

590,884 

54,899 

District   of   Co- 

lumbia .     .     . 

Federal  District 

70 

437,571 

Guam  .... 

1898 

By  Naval  Officer 

210 

13,275 

Hawaii      .     .     . 

1898 

Territory 

6,449 

255,912 

Panama     Canal 

Zone      .     .     . 

1904 

Governor      and 
Administrative 
Departments 
under  authority 
of  President 

436 

22,858 

Military  and 

Naval  Service 

Abroad  . 

117,238 

Philippine 

Islands       .    . 

1899 

Colony,    largely 
self-governing 

115,026 

10,350,640! 

Porto  Rico    .     . 

1898 

Territory 

3,435 

1,299,809 

Tutuila,  Samoa 

1900 

By  Naval  Officer 

77 

8,056 

Virgin  Islands    . 

1917 

By  Naval  Officer 

138 

26,0512 

Total  Possessions 

716,725 

12,586,309 

United  States 

and  Possessions 

3,743,444 

117,857,509 

Census  of  1918. 


2  Census  of  1917. 


APPENDIX  C 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

General  Reference  Material 

The  World  Almanac  (New  York),  published  at  the  beginning  of 
each  year,  is  practically  a  necessity  to  every  Civics  class.  The 
Congressional  Directory,  the  Official  Hand  Book,  Blue  Book,  or 
Manual,  published  by  some  office  in  the  state  government,  and  the 
annual  or  special  reports  of  county,  city,  and  township  officers,  can 
usually  be  obtained  without  charge,  and  will  give  the  most  recent 
information  on  the  governments  with  which  they  deal.  From  the 
Superintendent  of  Documents,  Government  Printing  Office,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  can  be  obtained  a  list  of  the  bulletins  issued  by  the 
various  national  departments  and  bureaus.  From  this  list  selec- 
tions can  be  made  of  the  publications  which  will  be  of  the  most 
use  to  each  school.  Some  of  these  are  furnished  free,  but  for 
many  of  them  there  is  a  small  charge,  sufficient  only  to  cover  the 
cost  of  publication.  Similar  bulletins  may  be  issued  by  branches 
of  the  state  government. 

Several  of  the  best  weekly  and  monthly  periodicals  should  be 
always  accessible.  The  Independent,  The  Literary  Digest,  The  Out- 
look, and  The  Survey  are  excellent  weeklies,  and  Current  Opinion, 
The  American  City,  The  Review  of  Reviews,  and  The  World's  Work 
are  valuable  monthly  publications.  These  are  all  published  in 
New  York. 

Clippings,  pictures,  and  the  like,  will  be  collected  by  the  pupils 
from  many  sources.  Those  which  they  do  not  care  to  keep  for 
themselves  can  be  filed,  classified,  and  indexed.  A  collection  of 
material  thus  secured  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  may  become 
very  valuable. 

For  schools  which  can  afford  the  expense  there  should  also  be 
copies  of  such  reference  books  as  Bliss's  New  Encyclopedia  of  Social 
Reform  (Funk  and  Wagnalls,  New  York),  McLaughlin  and  Hart's 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Government  (Appleton),  and  the  American 
Year  Book  (Appleton)  or  the  International  Year  Book  (Dodd,  Mead 
&Co.) 

494 


Appendix  495 

Every  teacher  should  use  bulletins  of  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Education  such  as  No.  23  for  1915  on  The  Teaching  of  Com" 
munity  Civics.  Many  of  the  state  Boards  of  Education  also  pub- 
lish valuable  matter.  For  example,  a  circular  of  the  Massachusetts 
Board  on  The  Teaching  of  Community  Civics  contains  a  very  helpful 
list  of  books  for  reading  and  reference,  suggesting  their  compara- 
tive value  for  pupils  and  teachers. 

Each  pupil  should  keep  his  own  note  book,  which  should  contain 
his  outlines,  notes  taken  in  class  or  on  outside  reading,  and  such 
illustrative  matter  as  he  wishes  to  keep  for  his  own  later  use  and 
information. 

Ballots,  tax  lists,  tax  receipts,  warrants,  subpoenas,  deeds, 
mortgages,  plans,  maps,  charts,  contracts,  licenses,  and  the  like, 
from  a  great  variety  of  sources,  are  more  or  less  easily  obtainable 
and  are  of  much  illustrative  value. 

Books 

A  few  usable  books  which  the  pupil  can  read  with  interest  and 
understanding,  supplemented  by  up-to-date  reference  manuals, 
will  be  of  far  more  value  than  shelf-loads  of  volumes  which  only 
practiced,  readers  with  mature  minds  can  comprehend.  Have  extra 
copies,  if  possible,  of  the  books  which  will  be  in  most  common 
demand. 

Herewith  we  mention  a  few  which  will  be  found  helpful,  in  part 
at  least,  to  pupil  as  well  as  teacher.  We  make  no  attempt  to  list 
the  many  magazine  articles  which  would  be  helpful  if  available. 
Libraries  which  have  these  magazines  on  their  shelves  will  prob- 
ably have  also  the  periodical  indexes  which  can  be  consulted. 

Parts  I  and  II 

Beard,  American  City  Government  (Century) ;  Zueblin,  American 
Municipal  Progress  (Macmillan) ;  Howe,  The  Modern  City  and  Its 
Problems  (Scribner) ;   Bruere,  The  New  City  Government  (Appleton). 

Among  textbooks  for  young  pupils,  Dunn,  The  Community  and 
the  Citizen  (Heath)  has  a  good  explanation  of  the  beginning  of  a 
frontier  community;  Nida,  City,  State,  and  Nation  (Macmillan) 
gives  a  full  description  of  the  problems  of  city  administration. 

Part  III 

Young,  The  New  American  Government  and  Its  Work  (Mac- 
millan) ;    Haskin,  American  Government   (Lippincott) ;    Du  Puy, 


496  Appendix 

Uncle  Sam's  Modern  Miracles  (Stokes) ;  Bryce,  The  American 
Commonwealth  (Macmillan) ;  Hart,  Actual  Government  (Longmans). 
Magruder,  American  Government  (Allyn  and  Bacon),  is  a  text- 
book which  contains  much  valuable  information,  with  suggestive 
questions  and  extracts. 

Part  IV 

Towne,  Social  Problems  (Macmillan)  is  exceptionally  useful. 
Duplicates  of  this  should  be  available.  Others  include :  Wright, 
Practical  Sociology  (Longmans) ;  Bogart,  Economic  History  of 
the  United  States  (Longmans) ;  Van  Hise,  Conservation  of  Natural 
Resources  (Macmillan) ;  Burch  and  Nearing,  Elements  of  Economics 
(Macmillan) ;  Carlton,  History  and  Problems  of  Organized  Labor 
(Heath) ;  Ross,  The  Old  World  in  the  New,  and  Changing  America 
(Century) ;  Steiner,  The  Immigrant  Tide,  and  The  Trail  of  the  Im- 
migrant (Revell) ;  Henderson,  Dependents,  Defectives,  and  Delin- 
quents (Heath) ;  Warner,  American  Charities  (Crowell) ;  Haworth, 
America  in  Ferment  (Bobbs,  Merrill  &  Co.) ;  Puffer,  Vocational 
Guidance  (Rand,  McNally) ;  Davis,  Vocational  and  Moral  Guid- 
ance (Ginn) ;  Gowin  and  Wheatly,  Occupations  (Ginn) ;  Literature 
of  the  National  Child  Labor  Committee,  The  National  Consumer's 
League  (New  York),  and  similar  organizations. 

Lessons  in  Community  and  National  Life,  a  series  published 
monthly  during  the  school  year  of  1917-1918  by  the  National  Bureau 
of  Education  under  the  editorship  of  Dr.  Charles  H.  Judd,  will  be 
found  helpful  on  many  of  the  topics  in  Part  IV  and  some  in  Parts  I 
and  IL  « 


INDEX 

{References  are  to  pages.) 


Accidents,  industrial,  307,  308;  ef- 
fects, 308;  prevention  of,  114, 
309,  310;   remedies,  309-311. 

Adjutant-General,  246. 

Administrative  departments :  city, 
263,  264 ;  federal,  184-206 ;  state, 
246,  247. 

Admission  of  states,  239,  240. 

Advertising,  street,  66-68. 

Agriculture,  Department  of:  na- 
tional, 198-200;  state,  247;  serv- 
ice to  farmers,  414,  415. 

Alaska,  145,  218,  219,  386. 

Alderman,  263. 

Aliens :  explanation,  19,  20 ;  process 
of  naturalization,  21,  22;  schools 
for,  131 ;   sympathies  of,  396,  397. 

Ambassadors:  duties,  226;  privi- 
leges, 227;  reception  of,  180,  181, 
481. 

Amendments :  To  national  constitu- 
tion :  evasion  of  14th,  144 ;  method, 
215,  484;  terms,  215,  216,  485- 
491;  proposed,  216.  To  state 
constitution,  243. 

American  Federation  of  Labor,  324. 

Anarchists,  22,  465. 

Animal  Industry,  Bureau  of,  76,  199. 

Animal  life,  358,  359. 

Anti-Trust  law,  341,  343. 

Appeals,  249,  250. 

Appeals,  Circuit  Court  of,  209,  210. 

Appointments :  by  president,  179, 185, 
201-203,  211,  213,  481;  confirma- 
tion of,  179, 180,  481 ;  by  governor, 
246 ;  by  mayor,  262,  263. 

Apportionment,  154,  155. 

Appropriations,  165,  293-296,  478, 
479. 

Arbitration :  international,  230,  231 ; 
in  labor  disputes,  328,  329. 

Anns,  right  to  bear,  23,  485. 


Army :  administration,  189 ;  com- 
mander-in-chief, 178,  179,  481; 
maintenance,  165,  166,  294,  477; 
police  service  of,  120;  service  in, 
189-191. 

Arrest,  247. 

Articles  of  Confederation,  152. 

Ashes,  84. 

Asphalt :  construction,  44 ;  qualities, 
42. 

Assembly,  244,  245. 

Assessments,  297,  298. 

Assessor,  259,  297,  298. 

Attainder,  bill  of,  237. 

Attorney,  district:  county,  248,  256 
federal,  209,  211. 

Attorney-General :  federal,  194 
state,  246. 

Auditor:     county,  256;     state,  246 
town,  259,  260;     in  Treasury  de- 
partment, 188. 

Australian  ballot,  147,  148. 

Bail:  explanation,  247;  limitation, 
23. 

Ballot :  Australian,  147,  148 ;  Massa- 
chusetts, 148,  149 ;  old  forms,  146, 
147;  party  column,  146,  148; 
Pennsylvania,  147 ;  preferential, 
150 ;  primary,  140 ;  short,  150. 

Bank:  explanation,  276,  277;  rela- 
tions with  others,  278-281 ;  serv- 
ices, 277,  288. 

Bankruptcy,  186,  287,  288. 

Barter,  269. 

Belligerent,  229,  230. 

Bible  reading,  108. 

BUI,  consideration  of,  163,  164,  245. 

Bill  boards,  66-68. 

Bill  of  Rights :  national,  22-24,  215, 
485-487 ;   state,  243. 

Bills  of  credit,  238. 


497 


498 


Index 


{References  are  to  pages.) 


Bills  of  exchange,  276. 

Black  list,  326. 

Blind,  380. 

Bonds,  165,  283. 

Borough,  253,  260,  261. 

Boss,  138. 

Boycott,  325,  326. 

Bridges,  52,  53,  418,  428. 

Broad  construction,  167,  426,  427. 

Budget :    explanation,  299 ;   need  of, 

299,  300 ;    city,  300  ;    family,  454, 

455. 
Burgess,  chief,  261. 

Cabinet :  basis  of,  184,  481 ;  compari- 
son with  English,  186,  187;  de- 
partments, 187-201 ;  functions, 
185-187 ;  membership,  184 ;  suc- 
cession to  presidency,  178. 

Campaign:  methods,  141,  142;  laws 
governing  candidates,  142. 

Canals,  51,  353. 

Capital,  305,  306,  331,  332. 

Carnegie  :  Institute,  98 ;  libraries,  98, 
103. 

Caucus,  139. 

Census :  Bureau  of,  200 ;  taking  of, 
154. 

Charges  d'affaires,  226. 

Charities :  Associated,  376 ;  forms  of, 
375-377 ;  institutions  for,  377,  378  ; 
local  administration  of,  377 ;  state 
board,  378. 

Charter:  city,  261,  262;  corporation, 
334. 

Check,  275. 

Checks  and  balances:  explanation, 
17 ;   in  city  government,  263. 

Chemistry,  Bureau  of,  76,  200. 

Chief  Justice:  salary,  211;  special 
service  of,  172,  213. 

Child  labor :  laws,  128,  318 ;  begin- 
ning, 315,  316;  effects,  316-318; 
causes,  315,  317,  318 ;   extent,  316. 

Children:  care  for  homeless,  377, 
378 ;  early  relationship,  2,  3 ; 
school  attendance,  128,  129. 

Children's  Bureau,  201. 

Chinese,  398,  399. 

Circuit  Court  of  Appeals,  209,  210. 

Cities :  cost  of  living  in,  447-449 ; 
definition,  5,  261 ;  formation,  253, 


261,  262;  government,  262-267; 
growth,  6-8,  265;  problems,  265, 
266;  relation  of,  253,  254,  262; 
relations  to  rural  districts,  405, 
406,  409-411,  421. 

Citizens :  definition,  19  ;  duties,  25- 
27 ;  rights,  22-25 ;  rights  in  other 
states,  234,  235. 

Citizenship :  acquisition,  20-22 ; 
right  to  transfer,  20. 

City  manager,  267. 

Civic  center,  34,  35. 

Civil  service:  appointment  to,  179, 
180,  202,  203;  Commission,  202, 
203. 

Civil  suit,  procedure  in,  250. 

Claims,  Court  of,  21i. 

Cleaning  of  streets :  method,  45,  46 ; 
reasons,  45. 

Clearing-house,  278,  279. 

Closed  shop,  325. 

Coinage:  kinds,  271,  272  ;  power  of 
Congress  over,  165,  477. 

Collective  bargaining,  324,  325. 

Colonies,  219-221. 

Commerce:  authority  of  Congress 
over,  166,  477;  Department  of, 
200;  early  conditions,  424,  425; 
importance,  431-434  ;  kinds  of, 
235 ;  water,  343,  425,  426. 

Commissioners:  county,  255;  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  221 ;  in  state 
government,  246,  247 ;  United 
.  States,  209. 

Commission  government:  District 
of  Columbia,  221 ;    cities,  266. 

Committees:  party,  137;  Congres- 
sional, choice  of,  162;  work,  162, 
163. 

Communication:  early  means,  424, 
429;  importance,  431,  432;  pres- 
ent f acUities,  430,  431. 

Communities :  desire  for  life  in,  1,  2 ; 
economic  factors  in,  3  ;  examples, 
2;  kinds,  3-5;  responsibility  of 
members,  8,  9,  27. 

Commutation,  182. 

Comptroller :  of  the  Currency,  188 ; 
states,  246. 

Conciliation,  328,  329. 

Concurrent  powers,  238. 

Confederation,  15. 


Index 


499 


{References  are  to  pages.) 


Congress:  Committees,  162,  163; 
composition,  153-156 ;  govern- 
ment, 159-162 ;  law-making  in, 
163,  164;  powers,  156,  157,  164- 
167,  477,  478;  session,  157,  158, 
182;  special  provisions  affecting, 
167,  168. 

Congressional  Record,  159. 

Conservation :  animal  life,  358,  359  ; 
definition,  347;  forest,  350-352; 
land,  354-357  ;  metals  and  miner- 
als, 357,  358  ;  movement  for,  348, 
349 ;   water,  352-354. 

Constable,  259. 

Constabulary,  120. 

Constitution :  explanation,  13  ;  of  the 
United  States,  making,  152,  153 ; 
supremacy,  236 ;  of  states,  con- 
tents, 243,  244;  formation,  242, 
243. 

Consul,  226,  227. 

Consumers'  League,  314. 

Continuation  school,  128,  129. 

Contraband,  229. 

Contract :  explanation,  287 ;  restric- 
tion on  states,  238,  287. 

Convention:  adopting  platform,  137, 
138 ;  objections  to,  139  ;  presiden- 
tial nominating,  174,  175. 

Convict  labor,  369,  370. 

Cooperation:  of  state  and  nation, 
239  ;   in  business,  460. 

Copyright :  authority  for,  166 ;  grant- 
ing of,  203. 

Corporation:  combination,  335;  or- 
ganization, 334;  operation,  334; 
recognition,  233  ;  supervision,  203  ; 
taxation,  295. 

Corruption :  in  city  government,  265, 
266;   police,  118,  120. 

Cost  of  living,  447-455. 

Council :  borough,  261 ;  city,  262, 
263. 

Council  for  Defense,  344,  345. 

County :  explanation,  16,  253 ;  divi- 
sion of,  253-255,  257,  258 ;  admin- 
istrative officials,  255,  256. 

County  seat,  255. 

Courts:  federal,  207-211,  482,  483; 
services  and  importance,  207,  482  ; 
jurisdiction,  207, 208 ;  organization, 
208-211 ;  relation  of  state  and  fed- 


eral, 208,  484,  487 ;  state,  organi- 
zation, 247  ;  proceedings,  247-251 ; 
county,  255,  256,  264;  town  or 
township,  259,  260 ;   police,  264. 

Credit:  explanation,  273;  forms, 
274-276 ;   danger,  279,  280. 

Crimes :  causes,  363,  364 ;  classifica- 
tion, 362;  definition,  361,  362; 
prevention,  366,  367. 

Criminal  case,  process  of,  247-251. 

Criminals :  treatment,  364-371 ; 
institutions  for,  367-370 ;  assist- 
ance, 370. 

Crops,  protection  of,  414,  415. 

Currency  system,  271,  272. 

Customs,  291. 

Customs  Appeals,  Court  of,  211. 

Death  rates,  72,  73. 

Debt :   city,  266,  293 ;  national,  294- 

296. 
Deed,  285. 
Defectives,  380,  381. 
Defendant,  250. 
Democracy,  15. 

Denominations,  religious,  105-108. 
Departments :  of  government,  16,  17. 

See    also    Administrative    depart- 
ments. 
Dependents :   kinds,  380 ;   care,  379- 

381. 
Direct  legislation,  149,  150. 
Disease  :  causes,  72 ;  control,  73,  74 ; 

prevention,  74-78,  80,  81. 
Dispensary  system,  383,  384. 
District  attorney.     See  Attorney. 
District   courts:    federal,   208,   209; 

state,  247. 
District  of  Columbia :  authority  over, 

166,  478 ;   government,  221. 
Docks,  51. 
Draft:     for    military    service,    190; 

bank,  276. 
Drainage,  82,  83. 
Duties.     See  Customs. 

Education :  122-135 ;  boards  of,  125, 
259,  260,  264;  Commissioner  of, 
198;  rural,  407,  415-419.  See 
Schools. 

Elastic  clause,  167,  478. 


500 


Index 


(References  are  to  pages.) 


Elections,  143-154. 

Electors,    Presidential:      choice    of, 

175-177 ;  voting  by,  176,  216. 
Electric  power :  on  railroads,  56 ;  on 

street  railways,  58,  59. 
Elevated  railways,  59,  60. 
Eminent  domain,  24,  286. 
Employment,  322,  323. 
Enabling  act,  240. 
England :    Cabinet  system,  186,  187  ; 

government,  14  ;   schools,  123. 
Engraving  and  Printing,  Bureau  of, 

188. 
Entomologist,  200. 
Entrepreneur,  333. 
Exchange,  bill  of,  276. 
Excise,  291. 

Executive  department,  16. 
Experiment  stations,  200. 
Export  taxes,  238,  478. 
Ex  post  facto,  237,  478,  479. 
Extradition,  225,  226,  236. 


Factory.     See  Labor. 

Farm  Loan  Banks,  421,  422. 

Farms.     See  Rural  life. 

Federal  powers,  238. 

Federal  Reserve  system,  280,  281. 

Federal  Trade  Commission,  203. 

Federation,  15. 

Feeble-minded,  380,  381. 

Felony,  361,  362. 

Filibuster,  160. 

Filtration,  80. 

Fire:  causes,  110,  111 ;  departments, 
111-113;  insurance,  115;  losses, 
110;  prevention,  113-115;  rural 
protection  from,  412,  413. 

Food :  inspection,  74-78 ;  sources, 
91,  92. 

Forbidden  powers,  237,  238,  478, 
479. 

Foreign-born :  habits  and  ideas,  395- 
397,  398  ;  location,  393-395 ;  num- 
ber, 392,  394. 

Forest  conservation,  350-352. 

Forestry,  Bureau  of,  200. 

France  :  government,  14,  15  ;  police 
system,  117 ;   schools,  123. 

Franchises,  48-50. 

Franking  privilege,  168. 


Freedom :  guarantee  of,  23,  485,  486. 
Freight,  in  cities,  54,  56. 
Fugitives,  235. 


Garbage,  83-86. 

Gary  schools:  features,  134;  reli- 
gious instruction  in,  108. 

General  Assembly,  244. 

General  Board,  192. 

General  Court,  244. 

General  property  tax,  296. 

General  Staff,  189. 

Geological  Survey,  198. 

Germany,  14,  15  ;  police  system,  117; 
schools,  123,  124 ;  treatment  of 
Belgium,  227,  228. 

Gerrymander,  155. 

Girls,  training  of,  444-446. 

Gold  :  as  money,  270,  271 ;  effect  on 
prices,  450,  451. 

Government :  definition,  13  ;  depart- 
ments of,  16,  17 ;  distribution  of 
powers,  237-239,  477-479,  484, 
487 ;  federal,  152-223  ;  forms,  13- 
15;  local,  253-268 ;  needs  for,  11, 
12 ;  of  the  United  States,  15,  16 ; 
ownership,  463,  464 ;  regulation  of 
industry,  344,  345,  462, 463  ;  estate, 
242-251 ;  theories  of,  461-466. 

Government  Printing  Office,  204. 

Governor,  245,  246. 

Grandfather  clause,  402. 

Grand  jury,  248. 
Greenbacks,  272,  273. 
Grotius,  224,  225. 

Habeas  corpus,  23,  24,  478. 

Hague  Conference,  231. 

Hawaii,  219. 

Health,  72-96,  411,  412. 

Hearing,  249. 

High  School :  growth,  124 ;  value  of 
education  in,  129,  438. 

Highways.     See  Street. 

Home  management,  453-455. 

Home  owning,  86-88. 

Home  rule,  for  cities,  262. 

Homestead  laws,  358. 

House  of  Representatives :  composi- 
tion, 154-156,  473,  474;  govern- 
ment, 159,  160,  474 ;   officers,  160- 


Index 


501 


{References  are  to  pages.) 


162  ;  special  powers,  156,  157,  476, 
487,488;  State,  244. 
Housing,  86-91. 

Immigration:    Bureau  of,  200,  201 
distribution,  393-395,  398  ;  effects, 
395,   396,   398;   history,   390-392; 
reasons  for,  392,  393  ;   restrictions, 
397-399. 

Impeachment,  213,  214,  474,  475, 
482  ;   reference  to,  17,  156. 

Inauguration  of  President,  172,  481. 

Income  tax  amendment,  216,  490. 

Indeterminate  sentence,  366. 

Indians :  care  of,  197,  402,  403  ;  early 
treatment,  402  ;   numbers,  402. 

Indictment,  248. 

Initiative,  149,  150. 

Injunction,  250,  251,  326,  327. 

Insane,  379-381. 

Insurance,  fire,  115. 

Intemperance,  effect  of,  383. 

Interior,  Department  of,  196-198. 

Internal  improvements,  426,  427. 

Internal  revenue  :  Commissioner  of, 
188 ;   sources,  294. 

International  law,  224,  225. 

International  relations:  arbitration, 
230,  231 ;  basis  of,  224  ;  foreign 
representatives,  226,  227 ;  League 
to  Enforce  Peace,  231 ;  return  of 
criminals,  225,  226;  treaties,  224, 
227,  228 ;   war,  228-230. 

Interstate  commerce:  act  of  1887, 
341,  342;  Commission,  201,  202, 
342 ;  control  of,  166,  201 ;  explana- 
tion, 235. 

Irrigation :  importance,  354,  355  ; 
projects,  198,  355,  356. 

Japanese,  398,  399. 

Judges:  duties,  249,  250;  federal, 
209-211;  state,  247;  territorial, 
211,  218. 

Judgment,  250. 

Judicial  department:  functions  and 
examples,  16,  17 ;  city,  264 ;  na- 
tional, 207-212  ;   state,  247-251. 

Jurisdiction :  original,  209  ;  appellate, 
210 ;   of  states,  255. 

Jury :  grand,  required  in  criminal 
cases,  23,  work,  248;    petit,  guar- 


anteed, 23,  in  federal  courts,  209, 

in  state  courts,  248,  249. 
Justice,  Department  of,  76,  104. 
Justice  of  the  peace,  247,  259. 
Justices  of  Supreme  Court,  210,  211, 

213,  482. 
Juvenile  courts,  370,  371. 

Labor :  conditions,  327 ;  convict, 
369,  370 ;  definition,  305 ;  Depart- 
ment of,  200,  201,  323  ;  division  of, 
336-338  ;  employers'  interest  in, 
457,  458 ;  farm,  420  ;  foreign,  392- 
394 ;  importance,  306,  307  ;  prob- 
lems, 307-329;  Oriental,  398; 
settlement  of  disputes,  328,  329. 

Laissez  faire,  461. 

Land :  definition  and  uses,  305,  306 ; 
General  Office,  196 ;  survey  of,  258. 

Law :  definition,  13 ;  duty  to  obey, 
25,  26,  234 ;  making  of  national, 
163,  164;  making  of  state,  245; 
similarity  among  state,  234,  235. 

League  of  Nations,  231. 

Legal  tender :  definition,  272  ;  re- 
striction on  states,  238. 

Legislative  department,  16.  See 
Congress,  Legislature,  Council. 

Legislature,  244,  245. 

Libraries :  Congressional,  203  ;  rea- 
sons for,  102  ;  relation  with  schools, 
104;  support  of,  98,  102,  103; 
traveling,  103,  104;  work  with 
children,  104. 

License :  source  of  revenue,  293 ;  for 
liquor  selling,  384. 

Lieutenant-governor,  246. 

Lighting  of  streets,  47,  48. 

Limitation,  statute  of,  251. 

Liquor:  control,  383-385;  effects, 
363,  373,  383  ;  expenses  for,  383 ; 
tendency  concerning,  385-387. 

Loans,  293,  295,  296. 

Local  government,  253-268 ;  systems 
of,  254,  255. 

Local  option,  384,  385. 

Lock  out,  326. 

Mail  matter,  196. 
Manager,  city,  266,  267. 
Mandamus,  250. 
Markets,  94,  95. 


503 


Index 


(References  are  to  pages.) 


Marque  and  reprisal,  letters  of,  166. 

Marshal,  United  States,  209,  211. 

Marshall,  John,  167,  210,  211. 

Mayor,  262,  267. 

Merchant  marine,  343. 

Message,  presidential,  181,  182. 

Meters,  water,  81. 

Middlemen,  92-95. 

Migration,  significance  of,  433. 

Mileage,  158. 

Militia :  emergency  use,  120 ;  num- 
ber, 189  ;   summoning  of,  165,  166. 

Minerals,  347,  357,  358. 

Mines,  Bureau  of,  198. 

Ministers:  duties,  226;  reception, 
180,  181,  481,  482  ;  status,  227. 

Mint :  Director  of,  188 ;  location,  272. 

Misdemeanor,  362. 

Monarchy :  explanation,  13,  14  ; 
forbidden,  236,  484. 

Money :  amount,  272  ;  characteris- 
tics, 270 ;  commodities  used  for, 
270,  271 ;  definition  and  uses,  269, 
270 ;   paper,  272,  273. 

Monopoly :  definition,  338 ;  kinds, 
338,  339 ;  policy  toward,  342,  343 ; 
prices,  339,  340. 

Mortgages,  286,  287. 

Mothers'  pensions,  378. 

National  banks,  276,  277,  280,  281. 

National  Guard:  emergency  service, 
120;    federal  control  of,  166,  190. 

National  Parks,  197,  356,  357. 

Naturalization :  Bureau  of,  201 ;  pro- 
cess of,  21,  22. 

Natural  resources,  305,  347-359. 

Navy :  administration,  192 ;  com- 
mander-in-chief, 178,  179 ;  con- 
struction, 192  ;  Department  of,  191, 
192  ;  maintenance,  165,  166 ;  need, 
192,  193. 

Negro :  in  politics,  402, 403  ;  progress, 
400 ;  relation  with  whites,  399,  400. 

Neutrals,  229,  230. 

Newspapers :  management,  430,  431 ; 
possible  usefulness,  468. 

Nobility,  titles  of,  237,  479. 

Noise,  unnecessary,  68,  69. 

Nomination:  method,  139-141; 
paper,  141 ;   presidential,  174,  175. 

Note,  275. 


Occupations :    training  for,  439-446; 

wages  of,  447. 
Oligarchy,  14. 
Open  shop,  325. 
Opinion,  public:    force  of,  467-469; 

individual  responsibility  for,  469; 

sources,  468. 

Panama  Canal:     construction,   189; 

government  of  Zone,  219. 
Pan-American  Union,  204,  205. 
Pardon,  presidential,  182. 
Parks,  99,  100. 
Parkways,  69. 
Parliament:      pattern  for  Congress, 

153 ;   relations  with  Cabinet,  186, 

187. 
Parole,  366. 
Partnership,  333,  334. 
Party:    dangers,  138,  139;   methods, 

141,  142;     nominations,  138-141; 

organization,    137,    138 ;      reasons 

for,  136,  137. 
Patent :  authority  for,  166 ;  granting, 

197. 
Patriotism,  27,  469,  470. 
Pauperism,  371-378. 
Paving,  41-44. 
Peace:      desire  for,   228,   230,   231; 

League  to  Enforce,  231. 
Pension,  196,  197,  294. 
Petit  jury,  248,  249. 
Philippine  Islands,  219-221. 
Picketing,  326. 
Pinchot,  Gifford,  369. 
Piracy,  225. 
Plaintiff,  250. 
Planning,    community :      difficulties, 

32,  33  ;  examples,  30-32 ;  features, 

28-30 ;   importance,  28-30. 
Plant  Industry,  Bureau  of,  200. 
Platform,  137,  138. 
Playground,  100-102,  133. 
Pocket  veto,  164. 
Police:      corruption,    118-120,   264; 

courts,  264  ;   in  rural  districts,  413, 

414;   management  in  Europe,  117, 

118;    qualifications,  118;    service, 

115-118. 
Police  power,  12,  461,  462. 
Poor :  care  for,  377,  378 ;  directors  of, 

256 ;  farm,  377. 


Index 


503 


{References  are  to  pages) 


Population :  of  cities,  7,  8  ;  of  states 
and  possessions,  491,  492. 

Porto  Rico,  219,  386. 

Possessions,  219-221. 

Postmaster-General,  195. 

Postmasters,  195,  196,  202. 

Post  offices :  establishment,  166 ; 
service,  194,  195,  430. 

Poverty :  causes,  372-374 ;  extent, 
371 ;  methods  of  relief,  374,  378. 

Preamble,  473. 

Preparedness  :  industrial,  344,  345  ; 
military  and  naval,  190,  192,  294. 

President :  importance,  171 ;  method 
of  election,  173-177,  479,  480,  487, 
488  ;  powers  and  duties,  178-183, 
481,  482;  qualifications,  172,  480; 
relation  with  Cabinet,  185,  187 ; 
relation  to  civil  service,  202,  203 ; 
removal,  213,  214,  482  ;  residence, 
172  ;  salary,  173  ;  succession,  177, 
178,  480 ;  term,  171,  172,  479. 

Press.     See  Freedom ;    Newspapers. 

Prices :  determination,  449-451 ;  ef- 
fects of  high,  451 ;  rise  in,  449-451. 

Primary,  139,  140. 

Prisons,  367-369. 

Probation,  365,  366. 

Production,  factors  in,  305-307. 

Profit  sharing,  457,  458. 

Progress,  method  of,  466,  467. 

Prohibition :  national  amendment, 
387,  491 ;  progress,  385-388 ;  re- 
quired of  Oklahoma,  240;  state,  385. 

Property :  acquisition,  284,  285 ; 
forms,  283  ;  partial  ownership,  286, 
287 ;   rights  to,  24. 

Protectorates,  222. 

Public  Instruction,  Superintendent 
of,  125,  246. 

Public  ownership:  arguments  con- 
cerning, 463,  464 ;  of  street  rail- 
ways, 61 ;  possibilities,  434,  435. 

Public  utilities,  48-50. 

Punishments,  364-369. 

Quarantine,  73. 
Quorum,  159,  475. 

Race  problems,  390-403. 

Railroads :  disagreeable  features,  54  ; 


improvement,    54-56 ;     problems, 

201,  202,  341,  342,  429-434,  435; 

progress,  427-429  ;    service,  53. 
Railways,  street :   equipment,  58-61 ; 

interurban,  57,  58 ;  quality,  60,  61 ; 

services,  57,  58. 
Recall,  150. 

Reclamation  service,  198,  355. 
Recreation,  97-102. 
Referendum,  149,  150. 
Reformatory,  368. 

Registration :  of  voters,  145 ;  for  mili- 
tary service,  190. 
Religion :  cause  for  immigration,  393 ; 

decline  in  rural  districts,  408 ;    de- 
.  nominations,   105,   106;     field  for 

rural,  417;     freedom  of,  23,   104, 

105 ;    in  politics,  106 ;    instruction 

in,  107,  108  ;  relation  to  state,  105. 
Removal :    by  recall,  150 ;  of  federal 

officers,  180,  185,  211,  213,  214. 
Representatives.     See  House. 
Reprieve,  182. 
Republic :  explanation,  15 ;  required, 

236. 
Requisition,  235,  236. 
Revenue,  293-298. 
Roads :     improvement  in  rural,  409, 

410 ;  national  aid  to,  409,  410,  426 ; 

old  rural,  407,  408. 
Roosevelt,  Theodore :  in  presidency, 

172,  173 ;  views  and  policies,  203, 

341,  349,  350,  406,  437,  462. 
Rubbish,  83-86. 
Rural  communities  :  cost  of  living  in, 

447,  448  ;  explanation,  3,  4  ;  higher 

life  of,  416-418  ;   importance,  405 ; 

social  centers,  417,  418. 
Rural  life  :  business  methods  in,  419- 

421;     importance,  405,  420,  421; 

problems,   408-421 ;      unfavorable 

conditions,  405-408. 

Safety,  movements  for,  309-312. 
Salary  :  Cabinet,  186 ;  Congress,  167, 

168  ;  judges,  211 ;  president,  173. 
Sanitation,  74. 

Schedule,  state  constitution,  244. 
Schools  :      administration,    126-128 ; 

attendance,  128, 129  ;  courses,  130- 

132,  415;     equipment,    132,   133; 

foreign   systems,    123,     124;    new 


504 


Index 


(References  are  to  pages.) 


features,  133,  134 ;  new  rujral,  415- 
417 ;  old  rural,  407 ;  reasons  for 
public,  122,  123;  revenues,  129, 
130 ;  as  social  centers,  132 ;  state 
systems,  124-126 ;  superintendent, 
256. 

Secret  service,  188. 

Selectmen,  259,  260. 

Senate :  composition,  153,  154,  474, 
490;  election,  153,  154,  216,  474, 
490 ;  officers,  160,  475 ;  rules,  160 ; 
special  powers,  156,  157,  475,  481 ; 
state,  244. 

Senatorial  courtesy,  179,  180. 

Sergeant-at-arms,  160,  161. 

Settlement  house,  90,  376,  377. 

Sewerage  systems,  82,  83. 

Sheriff,  255. 

Shipping  Board,  343. 

Silver,  270,  271,  272. 

Single  tax,  301. 

Slavery :  amendments  concerning, 
216,  488-490;  forbidden,  23,  237, 
488. 

Slums,  88-91. 

Smithsonian  Institution,  203,  204. 

Smoke  nuisance,  61-64. 

Social  center :  churches,  417 ;  schools, 
132,  417. 

Socialism,  464-466. 

Sovereignty,  13. 

Speaker,  160,  161,  217. 

Spoils  system,  202. 

Stagecoach,  424,  425. 

Standard  of  living :  average,  452, 
453;   desirable,  451,  452. 

State:  Department  of,  187,  188; 
Secretary  of  (national),  promi- 
nence, 187,  succession  to  president, 
178,  treaty-making,  180,  187; 
secretary  of  (state) ,  246. 

States:  admission,  239,  240,  483; 
constitution,  242-244;  divisions, 
16 ;  explanation,  16 ;  government, 
242-251;  original,  242;  powers, 
238,  239;  relation  to  national 
government,  16,  238,  239;  rela- 
tion to  each  other,  233-236,  483 ; 
school  system,  124-126. 

Steamboat,  425,  426. 

Stocks :  definition,  283 ;  kinds,  284 ; 
watered,  60,  61. 


Streets:    cleaning,  45-47;    cost,  38; 

laying   out,  38-41 ;     lighting,  47, 

48 ;    paving,  41-44 ;   planning,  33, 

34;    use    by    public   utilities,   48- 

50. 
Strict  construction,  167,  426. 
Strikes:    disorders  in,  326;    effects, 

328 ;     occasion,   325 ;     settlement, 

328,  329. 
Subsidy,  ship,  343. 
Subways,  59,  60. 
Suffrage.     See  Ballots;  Voting. 
Suit,  process  in,  248-260. 
Sunday :  observance,  107 ;  school,  2, 

107. 
Supervisors:      board   of,   255,    260; 

Pennsylvania,  260. 
Supreme  court:    of  states,  247;    of 

United  States,  210,  482. 
Survey,  69. 
Swamp  lands,  356. 
Sweat  shop,  312-314. 

Tariff :  explanation,  302 ;  Commis- 
sion, 303. 

Taxes:  characteristics,  289,  290; 
kinds,  290,  291 ;  national,  293-295 ; 
necessity,  291-293 ;  power  of  Con- 
gress, 164,  477  ;  reforms,  300-302 ; 
state  and  local,  296-298. 

Teachers,  127,  128. 

Tenements :  evils,  90 ;  improve- 
ments, 90 ;  increase,  88  ;  reasons 
for,  86,  87. 

Territory:  authority  of  Congress 
over,  166,  218,  484;  government, 
218,  219  ;   origin,  217,  218. 

Topography :  alteration  of,  36,  38 ; 
difficulties  with,  32,  33. 

Torrens  land  title  system,  285,  286. 

Town:  function,  266,  258;  govern- 
ment, 258-260 ;   origin,  254. 

Township :  explanation,  253,  254, 
256-258 ;   officials,  260.  * 

Trade.     See  Commerce. 

Trade  agreement,  324,  325. 

Trades,  dangerous,  311,  312. 

Tramps,  382. 

Transportation :  importance,  431- 
434 ;  improvements,  425-429 ; 
primitive  methods,  424,  425  ;  prob- 
lems, 341-343,  434,  435. 


Index 


505 


(References  are  to  pages.) 


Travel :    early  difficulties,  424,  425  ; 

modern  conveniences,  433,  434. 
Treason,  214. 
Treasurer :    city,  263 ;    county,  255, 

256;    state,  246;    of    the    United 

States,  188. 
Treasury :   Department  of,  188,  189  ; 

Register  of,  188 ;  Secretary  of,  184, 

185,  188. 
Treaty:        enforcement,    227,    228; 

making,    180,    187;      origin,   224; 

ratification,  157,  180. 
Trees :  beauty,  30,  64 ;  kinds,  64,  65, 

265 ;   care,  65. 
Trial,  process  of,  248-250. 
Trust :     attitude  toward,  335,    341 ; 

formation,  335 ;    laws   concerning, 

341-343. 
Trust  company,  277. 
Trustees,  board  of,  261. 
Tuberculosis,  72. 
Twilight  zone,  236. 
Typhoid,  72,  80. 

Unemployment,  322,  323. 

Unfair  list,  326. 

Union,  labor :    accomplishments,  327, 

328 ;  formation,  323,  324 ;  methods, 

324-326 ;   objects,  324. 
Unsightly  places,  66-68. 
Unwritten  constitutions,  216,  217. 

Urban  communities,  4,  5. 

• 

Van  Hise,  C.  R.,  349. 

Ventilation,  74. 

Verdict,  249. 

Veto  :  pocket,  164 ;  presidential,  164, 
181,  476,  477  ;   reference  to,  17. 

Vice  President:  duties,  160,  177,  178, 
184,  474,  480 ;  election,  177. 

Village :  incorporated,  260,  261 ; 
unfavorable  conditions  in,  418,  419. 

Vocational  training:  conditions  af- 
fecting, 439-446;     for  girls,  444- 


446;  in  a  city,  443,  444;  in  rural 
districts,  441-443  ;  national  aid  to, 
437  ;  personal  elements,  439-441 ; 
reasons  for,  437-439. 

Votes,  electoral,  175-177. 

Voting:  not  a  right,  25;  counting, 
142-144  ;  influence  upon,  141,  142  ; 
methods,  146-149;  negro,  400- 
402 ;  qualifications  for,  144,  145 ; 
quality  of,  138,  139,  148 ;  time  of, 
142,  143. 

Wages :  increase,  327 ;  average  of, 
447  ;  relation  to  prices,  449,  451. 

War :  declaration,  166,  228 ;  Depart- 
ment of,  189;  effects,  229,  231; 
justification,  228. 

Warrant,  23,  247. 

Washington,  D.C., 

Washington,  Booker  f .,  400. 

Water :  conservation,  352-354  ;  dis- 
tribution, 80,  81 ;  pipes,  50 ;  puri- 
fication, 79,  80;  supply,  78,  79; 
transportation  problems,  50-52. 

Ways  and  Means,  committee,  162. 

Weather  Bureau,  199. 

Welfare  work,  458. 

Wharves,  51. 

White  House,  172,  173. 

Will,  284,  285. 

Wilson,  Woodrow  :  presidential  mes- 
sage, 182 ;  views  and  policies,  181, 
231,  397,  398. 

Wiring,  50. 

Woman  suffrage  :  national  amend- 
ment, 216  ;  status  of,  145,  146. 

Women:  employment,  extent,  319, 
320;    laws  for,  320,  321. 

Workers,  relation  of,  336-338. 

Workmen's  Compensation,  310,  311, 
378. 

Zones,  city,  35,  36. 


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